Infant food applications of complex carbohydrates: Structure, synthesis, and function

Abstract

Professional health bodies such as the World Health Organization (WHO), the American Academy of Pediatrics (AAP), and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services (HHS) recommend breast milk as the sole source of food during the first year of life. This position recognizes human milk as being uniquely suited for infant nutrition. Nonetheless, most neonates in the West are fed alternatives by 6 months of age. Although inferior to human milk in most aspects, infant formulas are able to promote effective growth and development. However, while breast-fed infants feature a microbiota dominated by bifidobacteria, the bacterial flora of formula-fed infants is usually heterogeneous with comparatively lower levels of bifidobacteria. Thus, the objective of any infant food manufacturer is to prepare a product that results in a formula-fed infant developing a breast-fed infant-like microbiota. The goal of this focused review is to discuss the structure, synthesis, and function of carbohydrate additives that play a role in governing the composition of the infant microbiome and have other health benefits.

Milk Glycans and Their Interaction with the Infant-Gut Microbiota

“…However, critical bioactive components found in human breast milk may be lacking in infant formula, and to address this, the composition of infant formula has changed over time (Lonnerdal 2014). Present-day infant formula is now supplemented with components such as oils, starches, and vitamins to better align with human milk (Ackerman et al 2017). However, human milk contains an array of diverse bioactive structures, and the production of structurally and compositionally similar molecules remains a challenging task.…”

“…Because HMOs are not readily available as an ingredient, infant formulas are now commonly supplemented with inulin and galactooligosaccharides (GOSs) or fructooligosaccharides (FOSs) (Ackerman et al 2017), and these commercial prebiotics have been shown to increase bifidobacterial abundance in vivo (Haarman & Knol 2005, Knol et al 2005, Ramirez-Farias et al 2009). Although these carbohydrates are prebiotic, emerging research is showing that they do not possess other important bioactivities of milk oligosaccharides.…”

Non-digestible carbohydrates in infant formula as substitution for human milk oligosaccharide functions: Effects on microbiota and gut maturation

“…Glycosyl linkages include b1,3, b1,4 and/or b1,6. The type of linkage is determined by the enzyme source used to link the different units (Ackerman et al 2017;Intanon et al 2014). Like HMOs, GOS can reach the large intestine, where they can act as prebiotics (Macfarlane et al 2008).…”

“…The length of the chain typically ranges from 2 to 10 units with variations in branching and glycosyl linkage (Ackerman et al 2017). Glycosyl linkages include b1,3, b1,4 and/or b1,6.…”

Relationship Between Oligosaccharides and Glycoconjugates Content in Human Milk and the Development of the Gut Barrier

“…Since E.coli is the most common system used, and there is much and good information about the mutants with no virulent capacity, the downstream production requires controls that guarantee endotoxin-free production (Sprenger, Baumgärtner, & Albermann, 2017) NDCs should not be abandoned. Many of the carbohydrates used to fortify infant formula have been extensively investigated as food ingredient for their prebiotic properties (Ackerman, Craft, &Townsend, 2017). Unfortunately, it has not been fully confirmed that they can substitute for other relevant functions of HMOs (Kent, 2006).…”