Infant Exposure to Metals through Consumption of Formula Feeding in Mekelle, Ethiopia

Abstract

This study aimed at determination of heavy metals (cadmium, lead, and zinc) in milk-based infant formulas collected from Mekelle, Ethiopia, and their associated health risks to the infants through consumption of these products. The infant feeding samples were dry-ashed in a muffle furnace followed by digestion in nitric acid and the resulting solutions were analyzed by flame atomic absorption spectrophotometer. Cadmium was not detected in the samples while the levels of lead and zinc ranged from not detected value to 0.103 mg/kg and from 27.888 to 71.553 mg/kg, respectively. The estimated daily intake values and the health risk indices of both metals were below their respective safety limits and the threshold of 1, respectively. These findings show low infant health risk of these metals through consumption of these products. Nevertheless, regular monitoring of infant formula for toxic metals is required since infants are potentially more susceptible to metals.

Content and Dietary Exposure Assessment of Toxic Elements in Infant Formulas from the Chinese Market

“…The exposure level of Pb was comparable to that reported in Italy [ 26 ] and lower than that reported in Nigeria, Turkey, Ethiopia and Iran [ 15 , 27 , 28 , 29 ]. The exposure of Cr was slightly lower than that reported in Italy [ 26 ], Turkey [ 28 ] and Ethiopia [ 29 ]. As for Cd, the exposure in this study was low compared to previous studies.…”

“…RfD is useful as a reference point from which to gauge the potential effects of the chemical at other doses. Usually, doses less than the RfD are not likely to be associated with adverse health risks and are therefore less likely to be of regulatory concern [ 29 ]. EDI = C × DI/BW where C is the toxic elements content in infant formula (μg/kg), DI is the daily infant formula intake (kg) and BW is body weight (kg).…”

“…Recently, toxic elements in infant formulas have been reported in Tanzania [ 21 ], Egypt [ 24 ], Nigeria, UK, USA [ 25 ] and Portugal [ 13 ]. Dietary exposure to toxic elements in adults and young individuals has been assessed in many countries [ 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 ]. In our previous study, toxic elements in raw milk in China have been assessed [ 31 ].…”

Comparative Analysis of Lead in Rats Organs Using FAAS and XRF: Insight on Suitable Equipment in Forensic Investigation of Heavy Metal Poisoning in Humans

“…This makes its presence revolves in the environment and subsequently gets to humans through food or water contamination. The presence of lead in infant formula products has been reported in the literature [6] .Studies have shown that occupational exposure to lead may have some impact on cardiac, liver and kidney functions of individuals in such environment [7] .Studies have also shown that lead induces oxidative stress in several organs such as kidneys, cardiovascular tissues, and endothelial and vascular smooth muscle cells [8] . The prime targets to lead toxicity are the heme synthesis enzymes and thiol-containing antioxidants, however oxidative stress plays more important role in mechanism of lead-induced toxicity [9] .While chronic lead toxicity can take weeks to months to build up on continuous exposure, acute signs and symptoms can also occur as a result of brief but intensive exposure [5] .…”

“…Lead determination in the forensic field may be performed on different types of samples, such as drugs [13][14] grains, soil and fluids, especially when cases of metal poisoning are suspected [12] . Therefore, choice of equipment for detection of lead in water, food materials or blood must be considered to detect very low lead concentrations.Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer (FAAS), and X-ray Fluorescence (XRF) metal analyzers have been used for detection of lead in many studies [15][16][17] [6] . Another analytical technique that can be used to detect heavy metals even at trace levels in biological fluids is inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) [18] .Electrochemical techniques, in particular stripping, are also used in forensic analysis for the determination of metals such as lead [19] .…”