Individual differences in male body‐image: An examination of self‐objectification in recreational body builders

Hallsworth, Lisa Jane; Wade, Tracey; Tiggemann, Marika

doi:10.1348/135910705x26966

Cited by 114 publications

(103 citation statements)

References 33 publications

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“…For example, researchers concerned with the psychology of eating disorders and those exploring hypotheses drawn from the Objectification Theory of Frederickson & Roberts (1997) have assessed feelings of shame specifically in reference to one's body. "Body shame" has been consistently associated with self-objectification and eating disorder symptoms (Hallsworth et al 2005). Andrews (1995Andrews ( , 1998 has examined the link between childhood abuse and body shame (see below).…”

Section: New Directions In Research On Shame and Guiltmentioning

confidence: 99%

Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior

Tangney

Stuewig

Mashek

2007

Annu. Rev. Psychol.

2,376

2,336

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Moral emotions represent a key element of our human moral apparatus, influencing the link between moral standards and moral behavior. This chapter reviews current theory and research on moral emotions. We first focus on a triad of negatively valenced "self-conscious" emotionsshame, guilt, and embarrassment. As in previous decades, much research remains focused on shame and guilt. We review current thinking on the distinction between shame and guilt, and the relative advantages and disadvantages of these two moral emotions. Several new areas of research are highlighted: research on the domain-specific phenomenon of body shame, styles of coping with shame, psychobiological aspects of shame, the link between childhood abuse and later proneness to shame, and the phenomena of vicarious or "collective" experiences of shame and guilt. In recent years, the concept of moral emotions has been expanded to include several positive emotions-elevation, gratitude, and the sometimes morally relevant experience of pride. Finally, we discuss briefly a morally relevant emotional process-other-oriented empathy. Keywordsshame; guilt; pride; elevation; gratitude OVERVIEWWhat confluence of factors foster a moral life lived to the benefit of self and others? This review summarizes current theory and research on moral emotions, offering a framework for thinking about the ways in which morally relevant emotions may moderate the link between moral standards and moral decisions, and ultimately moral behavior.Living a moral, constructive life is defined by a weighted sum of countless individual, morally relevant behaviors enacted day in and day out (plus an occasional particularly selfdefining moment). As imperfect human beings, however, our behavior does not always bear a one-to-one correspondence to our moral standards.Many potential explanations exist for the discrepancy between behavioral decisions (intentions) and actual behavior in both moral and nonmoral domains. Historically, much social psychological theory and research was devoted to understanding the imperfect link between intentions (e.g., moral decisions) and behavior. Field theory, the very foundation of social psychology, highlights the variability of individual behavior as a function of

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Section: New Directions In Research On Shame and Guiltmentioning

confidence: 99%

Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior

Tangney

Stuewig

Mashek

2007

Annu. Rev. Psychol.

2,376

2,336

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“…An adapted measure of the EDI-BD was used with male participants, based on adaptations made by Hallsworth, Wade and Tiggemann (2005). These changes included reversing the direction of some items (e.g., "too big/large" changed to "too small"), and making body part references male appropriate by adding items relating to chest and bicep size, and omitting items relating to hip size.…”

Section: Measures Included For the Purpose Of Convergent Validitymentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Six-items worded in a positive direction were reverse scored and mean item scores were used. The measure has been found to be appropriate for use with the Australian young adult male sample with which it was trialed (Hallsworth et al, 2005) where it had acceptable internal reliability, with a Cronbach's  of 0.83. Internal reliability in the present study was also good for both girls and boys with respective Cronbach's  of 0.90, and 0.81.…”

Section: Measures Included For the Purpose Of Convergent Validitymentioning

confidence: 99%

Examination of the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-3 in a mixed-gender young-adolescent sample.

Wilksch¹,

Wade²

2012

Psychological Assessment

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“…Normal-weight men are now displaying the desire to be more muscular and bulky, and are dieting to gain muscle in their upper bodies and tone their abdominal muscles (McCreary, Sasse, Saucier, & Dorsch, 2004). Although studies of competitive and recreational bodybuilders (Goldfield, Blouin, & Woodside, 2006;Hallsworth, Wade, & Tiggemann, 2005) and male collegiate athletes (Petrie at al., 2007) suggest that men who desire to increase their muscularity may engage in bulimic behaviors to achieve this goal, no studies of college students have examined whether this relation between the drive for muscularity and bulimic symptomology is common among male non-bodybuilders and non-athletes or among women. …”

mentioning

confidence: 99%

Do body image investment and evaluation relate to bulimic symptoms in U.S. collegiate men and women in the same way?

Pritchard

2014

Psychology of Men & Masculinity

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Although research suggests that body image investment (i.e., drive for muscularity, orientation toward appearance, preoccupation with weight or weight gain) and body image evaluation factors (e.g., negative evaluations of appearance, overestimation of current weight) correlate with bulimic symptoms, the magnitude of these relationships may differ between men and women. The relationship between bulimic symptoms and the drive for muscularity, one form of body image investment theorized to be particularly relevant to men, is understudied in college students. This study examined bulimic symptoms, body image investment, and body image evaluation in American undergraduate students (84 men, 198 women). Bulimic symptoms were negatively associated with appearance evaluation and positively associated with appearance orientation, weight preoccupation and weight overestimation in both men and women. Bulimic symptoms were positively associated with the drive for muscularity in men, but not in women. Awareness of the relationships between bulimic symptoms and body image investment and evaluation may help identify those at risk for bulimic symptoms.Keywords: sex, bulimic symptoms, the drive for muscularity, body image investment, body image evaluation Bulimia nervosa is an eating disorder characterized by recurrent binge eating, followed by compensatory behaviors such as purging, fasting, the use of laxatives, enemas, diuretics, and over exercising to burn excess calories (American Psychiatric Association, APA, 2000). Bulimia nervosa can lead to a variety of health risks, including damage to dental enamel and gum tissue (Mehler, 2011;Pomery & Mitchell, 2001), gastro-intestinal problems (Mehler, 2011;Pomery & Mitchell, 2001), and death (Crow et al., 2009). Although eating disorders have long been perceived to occur primarily in women, 10-20% of all patients with bulimia nervosa are men (Joiner, Katz, & Heatherton, 2000;Jones & Morgan, 2010).Research on men with bulimia nervosa is sparse; however, recent studies indicate the number of men suffering from the disorder may be greater than previously thought (Herpertz, Kocnar, & Senf, 1997;Jones & Morgan, 2010). This may be due to changes in the perception that eating disorders only affect women (Herpertz et al., 1997;Jones & Morgan, 2010) and homosexual men (Jones & Morgan, 2010), or an actual increase in the number of men who are suffering from eating disorders (Morgan, 2009). Regardless, the number of men who are dissatisfied with their bodies and are taking steps to reduce their dissatisfaction is increasing (Morgan, 2009;Ryan & Morrison, 2009).When assessing body image, researchers typically focus on two dimensions: body image investment and body image evaluation (Cash, Melnyk, & Hrabosky, 2004). Body image investment reflects the degree of cognitive and behavioral importance that someone assigns to his or her body and appearance, whereas body image evaluation is a person's satisfaction or dissatisfaction with his or her appearance (Cash et al., 2004). Research suggests...

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Individual differences in male body‐image: An examination of self‐objectification in recreational body builders

Abstract: Bodybuilding is associated with outcomes that suggest it may not result in greater overall health for men. It was concluded that objectification theory provides a useful framework for examining body-image differences in men.

Cited by 114 publications

References 33 publications

Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior

Moral Emotions and Moral Behavior

Examination of the Sociocultural Attitudes Towards Appearance Questionnaire-3 in a mixed-gender young-adolescent sample.

Do body image investment and evaluation relate to bulimic symptoms in U.S. collegiate men and women in the same way?

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