Individual Differences, Economic Stability, and Fear of Contagion as Risk Factors for PTSD Symptoms in the COVID-19 Emergency

Abstract

On January 30th 2020, the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the COVID-19 pandemic a Public Health Emergency of International Concern (PHEIC). Italy has been one of the most affected countries in the world. To contain further spread of the virus, the Italian government has imposed an unprecedented long-period lockdown for the entire country. This dramatic scenario may have caused a strong psychological distress, with potential negative long-term mental health consequences. The aim of the present study is to report the prevalence of high psychological distress due to the COVID-19 pandemic on the general population, especially considering that this aspect is consistently associated with PTSD symptoms. Furthermore, the present study aims to identify the risk factors for high PTSD symptoms, including individual differences and subjective perception of both economic and psychological aspects. We administered an online survey to 1253 participants during the peak period of the contagion in Italy. A logistic regression on the Impact of Event Scale-Revised (IES-R) scores was used to test the risk factors that predict the possibility to develop PTSD symptoms due to the COVID-19 pandemic. Gender (female), lower perceived economic stability, higher neuroticism, and fear and consequences of contagion were predictors of high PTSD symptomatology. The results, highlighted in the present study, extend our understanding of the COVID-19 pandemic's impact on the population's mental health, by identifying individuals at high-risk of developing PTSD. This may help with the implementation of specific protocols to prevent the possibility of developing symptoms of PTSD in target populations.

Risk and resilience factors for specific and general psychopathology worsening in people with Eating Disorders during COVID-19 pandemic: a retrospective Italian multicentre study

“…Finally, illness duration and economic condition were not found associated with the study outcomes. We may suggest that the response to COVID-19 confinement in people with EDs is not affected by these factors, although illness duration is an important factor promoting the progress of AN [ 28 ] and economic status was associated with psychopathology change during COVID-19 confinement in other psychiatric conditions [ 51 , 52 ]. However, it is not possible to rule out that the self-report nature of these data collection affected the present findings.…”

A 2-Month Follow-Up Study of Psychological Distress among Italian People during the COVID-19 Lockdown

“…The COVID-19 pandemic represents an unprecedented threat to mental health throughout the world, in high-, middle-, and low-income countries. Thus, in addition to seeking to flatten the curve of viral transmission, governments must also give priority to preventing mental disorders (e.g., major depressive disorder, post-traumatic stress disorder) [37]. Because the COVID-19 pandemic is associated with highly significant levels of psychological distress that, in many cases, would meet the threshold for clinical relevance, preventing and mitigating the adverse psychological impact of COVID-19 must be an international public health priority.…”

Health anxiety and attentional bias toward virus-related stimuli during the COVID-19 pandemic

“…Fear for COVID-19 questionnaire. The Fear for COVID-19 questionnaire is a scale specifically created to measure fear and concerning beliefs related to the COVID-19 pandemic in the Italian population 10 . The questionnaire is composed of eight items, which mainly refer to the perceived possibility of being infected by COVID-19 and to the possible consequences of the contagion.…”

“…Furthermore, anxiety symptoms severity has been related to the absence of interpersonal relationship and loneliness, possibly attributed to the physical and social distancing imposed during the quarantine period 7,8 . Among other possible causes of increased anxiety levels, one of the most cited and shared is the fear of contagion, which led researchers to develop specific instruments to assess it 9,10 . These findings are not unexpected considering that fear is an evolutionary adaptive response to the presence of a dangerous and threatening stimulus that functionally motivates individuals to behave responsibly 11 .…”