Increasingly limited options for the treatment of enteric fever in travellers returning to England, 2014–2019: a cross-sectional analytical study

Abstract

Introduction. Enteric fever (caused by Salmonella enterica serovars Typhi and Paratyphi) frequently presents as an acute, undifferentiated febrile illness in returning travellers, requiring timely empirical antibiotics. Gap Statement. Determining which empirical antibiotics to prescribe for enteric fever requires up-to-date knowledge of susceptibility patterns. Aim. By characterising factors associated with antimicrobial resistance in cases of S. Typhi and S. Paratyphi imported to England, we aim to guide effective empirical treatment. Methodology. All English isolates of S. Typhi and S. Paratyphi 2014–2019 underwent antimicrobial susceptibility testing; results were compared to a previous survey in London 2005–2012. Risk factors for antimicrobial resistance were analysed with logistic regression models to predict adjusted odds ratios (aOR) for resistance to individual antibiotics and multi-drug resistance. Results. We identified 1088 cases of S. Typhi, 729 S. Paratyphi A, 93 S. Paratyphi B, and one S. Paratyphi C. In total, 93 % were imported. Overall, 90 % of S. Typhi and 97 % of S. Paratyphi A isolates were resistant to ciprofloxacin; 26 % of S. Typhi were multidrug resistant to ciprofloxacin, amoxicillin, co-trimoxazole, and chloramphenicol (MDR+FQ). Of the isolates, 4 % of S. Typhi showed an extended drug resistance (XDR) phenotype of MDR+FQ plus resistance to third-generation cephalosporins, with cases of XDR rising sharply in recent years (none before 2017, one in 2017, six in 2018, 32 in 2019). For S. Typhi isolates, resistance to ciprofloxacin was associated with travel to Pakistan (aOR=32.0, 95 % CI: 15.4–66.4), India (aOR=21.8, 95 % CI: 11.6–41.2), and Bangladesh (aOR=6.2, 95 % CI: 2.8–13.6) compared to travel elsewhere, after adjusting for rising prevalence of resistance over time. MDR+FQ resistance in S. Typhi isolates was associated with travel to Pakistan (aOR=3.5, 95 % CI: 2.4–5.2) and less likely with travel to India (aOR=0.07, 95 % CI 0.04–0.15) compared to travel elsewhere. All XDR cases were imported from Pakistan. No isolate was resistant to azithromycin. Comparison with the 2005–2012 London survey indicates substantial increases in the prevalence of resistance of S. Typhi isolates to ciprofloxacin associated with travel to Pakistan (from 79–98 %) and Africa (from 12–60 %). Conclusion. Third-generation cephalosporins and azithromycin remain appropriate choices for empirical treatment of enteric fever in most returning travellers to the UK from endemic countries, except from Pakistan, where XDR represents a significant risk.

British Infection Association guidelines for the diagnosis and management of enteric fever in England

“…By contrast, most cases of S. Paratyphi B were in people who had travelled to the Americas (48%, principally South America) or the Middle East (41%), with a smaller proportion to South Asia ( Table 2 ). 7 These findings are consistent with earlier case series from centres in England. [8][9][10][11][12][13] What type of traveller is most at risk of acquiring infection in endemic countries?…”

“…Travel-related cases of S. Typhi from all regions of the world showed high prevalence of FQ resistance in UKHSA surveillance data 2014-2019, accounting for 98% of cases associated with travel from Pakistan (412/421 isolates with available information), 96% from India (384/399), 88% from Bangladesh (64/73), 70% from elsewhere in Asia (45/64), and 60% from Africa (31/52). In a multivariable logistic regression model (taking account of multiple travel destinations and changes over time), S. Typhi resistance to FQ was most strongly associated with travel to Pakistan (adjusted OR 32.0, 95%CI 15.4-66.4, P < 0.001), and was also associated with travel to India (OR 21.8, 95%CI 11.6-41.2, P < 0.001) and Bangladesh (aOR 6.2, 95%CI 2.8-13.6, P < 0.001) 7 .…”

Traditional Widal Agglutination Test Versus Rapid Immunochromatographic Test in the Diagnosis of Enteric Fever: A Prospective Study From South India

“…The drawback of low PPV includes false-positive diagnosis and unnecessary antibiotic therapy [15]. This could further put a financial burden on the patients and be responsible for the emergence of multi-drug resistance and further limit treatment options [16][17][18][19][20][21].…”

Genetic context of blaCTX–M–55 and qnrS1 genes in a foodborne Salmonella enterica serotype Saintpaul isolate from China

“…Extended-spectrum β-lactamase-producing and FQs-resistant strains of Salmonella have been reported throughout the world, constituting a great public health concern ( Castellanos et al, 2018 ; Nadimpalli et al, 2019 ; Zhang et al, 2019 ; Chattaway et al, 2021 ; Herdman et al, 2021 ). Contaminated animal-derived food products are an important route of transmission of Salmonella from animals to humans ( Zhu et al, 2017 ; Zhang et al, 2018 ; Wang et al, 2020 ).…”

“…The isolate 16Sal016 is marked blue. Zhang et al, 2019;Chattaway et al, 2021;Herdman et al, 2021). Contaminated animal-derived food products are an important route of transmission of Salmonella from animals to humans (Zhu et al, 2017;Zhang et al, 2018;Wang et al, 2020).…”