Increasing Chocolate’s Sugar Content Enhances Its Psychoactive Effects and Intake

Abstract

Chocolate elicits unique brain activity compared to other foods, activating similar brain regions and neurobiological substrates with potentially similar psychoactive effects as substances of abuse. We sought to determine the relationship between chocolate with varying combinations of its main constituents (sugar, cocoa, and fat) and its psychoactive effects. Participants consumed 5 g of a commercially available chocolate with increasing amounts of sugar (90% cocoa, 85% cocoa, 70% cocoa, and milk chocolates). After each chocolate sample, participants completed the Psychoactive Effects Questionnaire (PEQ). The PEQ consists of questions taken from the Morphine-Benzedrine Group (MBG), Morphine (M,) and Excitement (E) subscales of the Addiction Research Center Inventory. After all testing procedures, participants completed the Binge Eating Scale (BES) while left alone and allowed to eat as much as they wanted of each of the different chocolates. We found a measurable psychoactive dose–effect relationship with each incremental increase in the chocolate’s sugar content. The total number of positive responses and the number of positive responses on the E subscale began increasing after tasting the 90% cocoa chocolate, whereas the number of positive responses on the MBG and M subscales began increasing after tasting the 85% cocoa chocolate sample. We did not find a correlation between BES scores and the total amount of chocolate consumed or self-reported scores on the PEQ. These results suggest that each incremental increase in chocolate’s sugar content enhances its psychoactive effects. These results extend our understanding of chocolate’s appeal and unique ability to prompt an addictive-like eating response.

Hyper‐Palatable Foods: Development of a Quantitative Definition and Application to the US Food System Database

“…The findings are consistent with the theoretical and scientific literature indicating that two or more palatability-inducing ingredients at moderate to high levels may be sufficient to induce hyper-palatability (23,27). Our findings expand on the existing literature by highlighting the role of sodium in enhancing palatability, an ingredient that was key in two of our three clusters, as prior research has primarily focused on combinations of fat and sugar (21,22) or fat and carbohydrates (23). In addition, our findings lend further support to the existing literature that has identified fat and sugar as important ingredients that synergistically enhance food palatability (21,22,35).…”

“…For example, several small experimental studies in humans have demonstrated that a combination of fat and sodium (FSOD) may synergistically enhance food palatability and increase consumption by up to 30% (16,17). Others have reported that combinations of fat and simple sugars (FS) may heighten preference and palatability (18)(19)(20)(21) and that consumption of high fat and high sugar may lead to future weight gain (22). Findings from the behavioral literature are supported by the findings of a recent neuroimaging study in humans that reported supra-additive effects of combining fat and carbohydrates; foods with fat-carbohydrate combinations were more efficient in activating brain reward neural circuitry than foods with either fat or carbohydrates alone (23).…”

“Just not knowing” can make life sweeter (and saltier): Reward uncertainty alters the sensory experience and consumption of palatable food and drinks.

“…We found little evidence that this is the case. In Experiment 3, we tested whether reward uncertainty modulates the experience of rewards in ways that could facilitate consumption (Casperson et al, 2019; Lenoir et al, 2007; van Opstal et al, 2020). We found that reward uncertainty about monetary outcomes makes sweet drinks taste sweeter and elevates hedonic responses among individuals with preferences for high-intensity sweet tastes.…”

Food Addiction and Eating Addiction: Scientific Advances and Their Clinical, Social and Policy Implications

“…Participants were also allowed to eat as much as they wanted of each of the different chocolates. Casperson et al [3] found that the excitement subscale of the PEQ increased (relative to baseline) after the 90% cocoa. The Morphine-Benzedrine Group subscale (containing questions about wellbeing and euphoria) and the Morphine subscale (focusing on attitudes and physical sensations) increased after the 85th cocoa sample.…”

“…This study by Caperson and colleagues explored the potential psychoactive effect of chocolate [3]. Participants consumed 5 g of a commercially available chocolate with increasing amounts of sugar (90% cocoa, 85% cocoa, 70% cocoa, and milk chocolate).…”