In Vitro Bioaccessibility and Bioavailability of Iron from Mature and Microgreen Fenugreek, Rocket and Broccoli

Abstract

Iron deficiency is a global epidemic affecting a third of the world’s population. Current efforts are focused on investigating sustainable ways to improve the bioavailability of iron in plant-based diets. Incorporating microgreens into the diet of at-risk groups in populations could be a useful tool in the management and prevention of iron deficiency. This study analysed and compared the mineral content and bioavailability of iron from microgreen and mature vegetables. The mineral content of rocket, broccoli and fenugreek microgreens and their mature counterparts was determined using microwave digestion and ICP-OES. Iron solubility and bioavailability from the vegetables were determined by a simulated gastrointestinal in vitro digestion and subsequent measurement of ferritin in Caco-2 cells as a surrogate marker of iron uptake. Iron contents of mature fenugreek and rocket were significantly higher than those of the microgreens. Mature fenugreek and broccoli showed significantly (p < 0.001) higher bioaccessibility and low-molecular-weight iron than found in the microgreens. Moreover, iron uptake by Caco-2 cells was significantly higher only from fenugreek microgreens than the mature vegetable. While all vegetables except broccoli enhanced FeSO4 uptake, the response to ferric ammonium citrate (FAC) was inhibitory apart from the mature rocket. Ascorbic acid significantly enhanced iron uptake from mature fenugreek and rocket. Microgreen fenugreek may be bred for a higher content of enhancers of iron availability as a strategy to improve iron nutrition in the populace.

Comprehensive Evaluation of Metabolites and Minerals in 6 Microgreen Species and the Influence of Maturity

“…Previous research using simulated gastrointestinal in vitro digestion (as a model of bioaccessibility), and mineral uptake in vitro (as a model of bioavailability), suggests that minerals (e.g., iron, potassium, magnesium, and zinc) in microgreens are bioaccessible and bioavailable, but with differences observed among plant species. Interestingly, differences in in vitro iron uptake between fenugreek microgreens and mature fenugreek were previously observed ( 63 ), where iron uptake was greater from microgreens and enhanced by ascorbic acid (vitamin C). These findings are promising with respect to bioaccessibility and bioavailability, but require confirmation and further investigation in vivo, particularly in humans.…”

Amber, red and blue LEDs modulate phenolic contents and antioxidant activities in eight Cruciferous microgreens

“…Research on the use of LED for the enhancement of bioactives in microgreen is a relatively new field, and results such as that presented here will lead to further investigations into specific compounds and how they may contribute to in vivo bioactivities. Currently, even in vitro studies are still scarce for bioaccessibility related studies in microgreens, especially for Brassica species (Khoja et al, 2020). A great deal of evidence exists on the health benefits of Cruciferous vegetables; however, only one animal study exists to date to study the effects of anthocyanin-rich red cabbage microgreens.…”

Small Functional Foods: Comparative Phytochemical and Nutritional Analyses of Five Microgreens of the Brassicaceae Family

“…Furthermore, their production can also be intended for consumers who need special diets, such as in the case of patients with kidney problems or nutritional deficiencies. Microgreens, for example, can be grown on substrates enriched with iron, and therefore support the resolution of iron-deficiency–related diseases [ 12 ], or on substrates almost totally starved of potassium, allowing patients suffering from impaired kidney function to include vegetables in their diet without risks [ 11 ]. Microgreens also offer the opportunity to increase the sustainability of vegetable production.…”

“…Microgreens also offer the opportunity to increase the sustainability of vegetable production. Broccoli microgreens, for example, require approximately 200 times less water and need 95% less time to grow than mature broccoli; moreover, they do not require the application of fertilizers or pesticides [ 12 ].…”