In situ observations of turbulent ship wakes and their spatiotemporal extent

Abstract

Abstract. In areas of intensive ship traffic, ships pass every 10 min. Considering the amount of ship traffic and the predicted increase in global maritime trade, there is a need to consider all types of impacts shipping has on the marine environment. While the awareness about, and efforts to reduce, chemical pollution from ships is increasing, less is known about physical disturbances, and ship-induced turbulence has so far been completely neglected. To address the potential importance of ship-induced turbulence on, e.g., gas exchange, dispersion of pollutants, and biogeochemical processes, a characterisation of the temporal and spatial scales of the turbulent wake is needed. Currently, field measurements of turbulent wakes of real-size ships are lacking. This study addresses that gap by using two different methodological approaches: in situ and ex situ observations. For the in situ observations, a bottom-mounted acoustic Doppler current profiler (ADCP) was placed at 32 m depth below the shipping lane outside Gothenburg harbour. Both the acoustic backscatter from the air bubbles in the wake and the dissipation rate of turbulent kinetic energy were used to quantify the turbulent wake depth, intensity, and temporal longevity for 38 ship passages of differently sized ships. The results from the ADCP measurements show median wake depths of 13 m and several occasions of wakes reaching depths > 18 m, which is in the same depth range as the seasonal thermocline in the Baltic Sea. The temporal longevity of the observable part of the wakes had a median of around 10 min and several passages of > 20 min. In the ex situ approach, sea surface temperature was used as a proxy for the water mass affected by the turbulent wake (thermal wake), as lowered temperature in the ship wake indicates vertical mixing in a thermally stratified water column. Satellite images of the thermal infrared sensor (TIRS) onboard Landsat-8 were used to measure thermal wake width and length, in the highly frequented and thus major shipping lane north of Bornholm, Baltic Sea. Automatic information system (AIS) records from both the investigated areas were used to identify the ships inducing the wakes. The satellite analysis showed a median thermal wake length of 13.7 km (n=144), and the longest wake extended over 60 km, which would correspond to a temporal longevity of 1 h 42 min (for a ship speed of 20 kn). The median thermal wake width was 157.5 m. The measurements of the spatial and temporal scales are in line with previous studies, but the maximum turbulent wake depth (30.5 m) is deeper than previously reported. The results from this study, combined with the knowledge of regional high traffic densities, show that ship-induced turbulence occurs at temporal and spatial scales large enough to imply that this process should be considered when estimating environmental impacts from shipping in areas with intense ship traffic.

Quantifying bubble-mediated transport by ebullition from aquatic sediments

“…While the above-mentioned processes resulting in bubble formation are natural, human activities can be associated with additional sources of bubbles in aquatic ecosystems. At the water surface, vehicle traffic is associated with enhanced turbulence and waves (Nylund et al, 2021). Turbine operation and plunging waters can be an extensive source of supersaturation (Beiningen and Ebel, 1970).…”

Hydrographical implications of ship-induced turbulence in stratified waters, studied through field observations and CFD modelling

“…An additional type of energy pollution is ship-induced turbulence (Figure 1), pioneered by Jürgensen (1991) but still commonly overlooked. Nylund et al (2021) advanced the characterisation and understanding of turbulent ship wakes from an environmental impact perspective through a combination of in situ and ex situ observations. Nylund et al (2021) also estimated that the input of ship-induced turbulent energy can be in the same order of magnitude as natural wind-induced turbulence, in areas of intense ship traffic.…”

“…Nylund et al (2021) advanced the characterisation and understanding of turbulent ship wakes from an environmental impact perspective through a combination of in situ and ex situ observations. Nylund et al (2021) also estimated that the input of ship-induced turbulent energy can be in the same order of magnitude as natural wind-induced turbulence, in areas of intense ship traffic. Hence, there is a need to investigate the potential impacts of shipping on local/regional hydrography, especially in areas and seasons of natural stratification of the surface ocean.…”

“…The development of the turbulent wake is affected by the ship's speed, geometry, and manoeuvring, as well as environmental conditions such as currents, stratification, and waves (Loehr et al, 2001;Stanic et al, 2009;Ermakov and Kapustin, 2010;Voropayev et al, 2012;Fujimura et al, 2016;Somero et al, 2018). There are a dozen of studies where field observations of the wake extent have been presented with reported wake depths of 15-30 m, wake longevities of 10-20 min, and visible temperature signals in the surface water from ship-induced vertical mixing extending tens of kilometres after ship passage (Nylund et al (2021) and references therein). None of studies reviewed by Nylund et al (2021) investigated the turbulent wake.…”

“…There are a dozen of studies where field observations of the wake extent have been presented with reported wake depths of 15-30 m, wake longevities of 10-20 min, and visible temperature signals in the surface water from ship-induced vertical mixing extending tens of kilometres after ship passage (Nylund et al (2021) and references therein). None of studies reviewed by Nylund et al (2021) investigated the turbulent wake. Instead, parameters such as the induced bubble cloud, temperature, or dilution of a dye/substance, were used as proxies for the turbulent wake extent.…”