In search of better practice in executive functions assessment: Methodological issues and potential solutions.

Abstract

The multicomponent nature of executive functions (EF) has long been recognized, pushing for a better understanding of both the commonalities and the diversity between EF components. Despite the advances made, the operationalization of performance in EF tasks remains rather heterogeneous, and the structure of EF as modeled by confirmatory factor analyses (CFA) is still a topic of debate (Karr et al., 2018). The present work demonstrates these two issues are related, showing how different operationalizations in task-based performance indicators impact the resulting models of EF structure with CFA. Using bootstrapped data from 294 children (8-12 years old) and nine EF tasks (tapping inhibition, working memory, and cognitive flexibility), we first show improved model convergence and acceptance when operationalizing EF through single tasks' scores (e.g., incongruent trials, Flanker task) relative to difference scores (e.g., incongruent minus congruent trials, Flanker task). Furthermore, we show that response times exhibit poor model convergence and acceptance compared not only to accuracy but also drift rate. The latter, a well-known indicator in driftdiffusion models, is found to present the best trade-off between convergence and acceptance to model EF with CFA. Finally, we examine how various operationalizations of performance in EF tasks impact CFA model comparison in the assessment of EF structure and discuss the theoretical foundations for these results.

Cognitive enrichment through art: a randomized controlled trial on the effect of music or visual arts group practice on cognitive and brain development of young children

“… Create a comprehensive data-driven model of child interrelated brain and EF development over the first two years of their academic curriculum, with and without additional cognitive enrichment (OC vs. VA vs. CG). Within the context of this comprehensive model of EF, explore how artistic enrichment may influence the typical transition from a more unified to a more multifaceted EF structure around age eight, comparing these findings against a minimally enriched CG [ 18 , 20 ]. …”

“…Data from structural equation modeling to identify latent factors suggest that executive functions evolve from a more unified model to a more multifaceted framework during the progression from childhood to adulthood [ 18 – 20 ]. Research focusing on children around the age of eight typically reveals a shift from a homogenous system to a dual-factor configuration within this age group [ 19 ].…”

The HPA and SAM axis mediate the impairment of creativity under stress

“…Specifically, high cognitive flexibility might facilitate the capacity to shift between different categories, thereby enhancing divergent exploration to generate original ideas (Berzenski et al, 2022;Krumm et al, 2018). Moreover, cognitive flexibility can also be categorized into different task demands, including categorization flexibility, representational flexibility, and reasoning flexibility (Barak & Levenberg, 2016;Ionescu, 2012;Yangüez et al, 2023). This study has primarily explored cognitive flexibility through the perspective of set shifting, which is the most commonly utilized component of cognitive flexibility.…”

Reading Skill Profiles in School-Aged Italian-Speaking Children: A Latent Profile Analysis Investigation into the Interplay of Decoding, Comprehension and Attentional Control

“…Yet, prior studies have predominantly examined the influence of individual executive skills in isolation. Notably, this fractionated view of executive components could be misleading because most of the tasks that measure specific executive components recruit and involve not only the assessed function of interest but also other non-targeted cognitive processes as well as measurement errors (i.e., the "task impurity problem", [24][25][26][27]).…”

“…This suggests that attentional mechanisms not only facilitate decoding processes but also influence higher-level linguistic processes. Indeed, attentional control allows readers to flexibly place focus upon relevant information while ignoring distractions [22,27,40]. This ability is crucial for decoding as it facilitates the sequential processing of graphemes within words [41,44,45].…”