In-Depth Investigation on Two- and Three-Electrode Impedance Measurements in Terms of the Effect of the Counter Electrode

A study on LiFePO4/graphite cells with built-in Li4Ti5O12 reference electrodes

“…3,4 Li 4 Ti 5 O 12 (LTO) is considered as a reliable substitute for metal lithium for reference electrodes, as it avoids the adverse effects of metal lithium during measurement. [5][6][7][8] M. C. Smart et al used three-cell O-ring sealed glass cells to study the effects of electrolyte composition on lithium plating. 9 H. M. Cho et al used LTO as a reference electrode.…”

“…They considered that two-electrode cells which used metal lithium as both counter and reference electrodes are not reliable for impedance measurements, especially at low temperatures and aer aging. 5 The main drawbacks of metal lithium as a reference electrode can be summarized as follows: 10 (a) impedance increases with aging and it takes time to stabilize; (b) the impedance of lithium electrodes changes with temperature and cycling, and is unstable or not reproducible; (c) metal lithium must be handled in a dry room with very low humidity or in a glove-box lled with an inert gas such as argon. On the other hand, the main drawbacks of two-electrode contained metal lithium reference electrodes can be summarized as follows: (a) the impedance of metal lithium interferes with the accurate measurement of the study electrodes; (b) the cell being used for the study must be disassembled in order to study the individual electrodes in the cell and in situ measurement is not possible.…”

Tuning Two Interfaces with Fluoroethylene Carbonate Electrolytes for High-Performance Li/LCO Batteries

“…According to previous publications, the high-frequency semicircle (200 Hz) is assigned to Li-ion conduction through the SEI layer and the low frequency semicircle (3 Hz) is assigned to charge-transfer process. 43 A circuit model used for the assignment is given in the figures for a better understanding. The size of the semicircles decreased considerably with the cycle in early cycling because inhomogeneous Li deposition/dissolution accompanies an expansion of the Li-metal electrode surface.…”

Critical Review of the Use of Reference Electrodes in Li-Ion Batteries: A Diagnostic Perspective

“…Moreover, the quality of the alloy (in terms of chemical composition and surface morphology) is also strongly influenced by temperature and the magnitude and duration of the applied current during the alloy formation process [66,73]. Other research works have reported the use of intercalation compounds such as LiFePO 4 (LFP) [15,78] or Li 4 Ti 5 O 12 (LTO) [15,16,37,59,76,93,94,102,[132][133][134] as RE materials (Figure 14). These compounds are ideal for use in REs, exhibiting distinctive plateaus at~3.4 V vs Li/Li + for LFP [15,135,136] and~1.5 V vs Li/Li + for LTO [16] (Figure 15).…”

“…, LiMn 2 O 4[56,57], LiCoO 2[16,17,31,37,[58][59][60][61][62][63][64], LiNi 0.8 Co 0.2 O 2 [58,65], LiNi 0.8 Co 0.15 Al 0.05 O 2 [35,66,67], LiNi 0.85 Co 0.1 Al 0.05 O 2 [68], Li(Li 0.1 Ni 0.3 Co 0.3 Mn 0.3 )O 2 [68], Li(Ni 0.3 Mn 0.3 Co 0.3 )O 2 [15,38,69-71], LiFePO 4 [72,73], LiNi 0.5 Mn 1.5 O 4 [74], LiNi 0.5 Mn 0.3 Co 0.2 O 2 [36,75], and LiNi 0.6 Mn 0.6 Co 0.2 O 2[76], as well as negative electrode active materials, such as carbons[35,60,68,[77][78][79][80], graphite[16,31,[36][37][38]57,[62][63][64][65][66][67][68][69][70][71][72][73][74][75]81,82], Sn-containing composites[82,83], LiTi 2 (PO 4 ) 3[15], Li 4 Ti 5 O 12…”