Impulsivity and time of day: Is rate of change in arousal a function of impulsivity?

Abstract

Impulsivity has been interpreted as a stable mediator of rate of change in arousal states. To test this hypothesis, 129 Ss differing in impulsivity were given placebo or caffeine at 9:00 a.m. or 7:30 p.m. Recognition memory was tested for the last 20 items from 2 lists of 24 items and 2 lists of 80 items. Scores from this paradigm reflect sustained attention and are thus sensitive to changes in arousal. A 4-way interaction among impulsivity, time of day, drug, and prior stimuli (p < .05) indicated that for those given placebo, recognition memory for long and late lists was poorer the higher the impulsivity in the morning; this pattern reversed in the evening. Caffeine reduced recognition errors. These results indicate that impulsivity is not a stable predictor of rate of change in arousal states. Instead, susceptibility to attentional lapses is mediated by impulsivity-related phase differences in diurnal arousal rhythms.Impulsivity is one of the dimensions of individual differences frequently identified by theorists concerned with the biological bases of personality. Although the appropriate theoretical interpretation of impulsivity is a matter of ongoing debate, many models either explicitly or implicitly posit a relationship to arousal (e.g., Barratt & Patton, 1983;H. J. Eysenck & Eysenck, 1985;Gale, 1987;Revelle, Anderson, & Humphreys, 1987;Schalling, Edman, & Asberg, 1983;Strelau, 1987;Zuckerman, 1983). Arguments that impulsivity is linked to arousal can be traced largely to Hans Eysenck (1967), who proposed that (a) there are genetically influenced differences in basal arousal levels, (b) all individuals experience maximally positive hedonic tone at intermediate arousal levels, and (c) individuals who are chronically underaroused develop patterns of behavior designed to increase their arousal. Because social, spontaneous, and risky behaviors (for example) typically afford greater arousal potential than solitary, planned, or safe endeavors, Eysenck proposed that phenotypically extraverted behavior patterns tend to develop among those whose basal arousal levels are low. This theory provided an explanatory link between evidence of the heritability of extraversion and data suggesting differences between introverts and extraverts in a variety of laboratory phenomena. We wish to thank Robert Calderon, Debra Janiszewski, Kimberly Moy, Kathryn Rosenthal, Tina Rovick, Vicky Singh, Sara Wilcox, and Peggy Wu for their assistance in collecting and scoring data.Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Kristen Joan Anderson, Department of Psychology, Northwestern University, Evanston, Illinois 60208.In brief, Eysenck proposed that the basal arousal level of introverts is higher than that of extraverts and, as a corollary, that the two primary subtraits of extraversion, sociability and impulsivity, are also negatively related to arousal.The term arousal is used here to refer to a state involving nonspecific physiological activation and the nondirectional component of alertness. Reflected in experience...

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