Implicit Working Memory: Implications for Assessment and Treatment

Abstract

Working memory (WM) impacts a gamut of cognitive abilities, but implicit WM is typically not considered in assessment or treatment, which may explain the variability of results in reviews of WM training. The role of implicit WM in adaptive behavior is reviewed. All we do is action based. Explicit WM plays a major role when we are required to "think"; that is, when we apply previously learned perception-action linkages in new ways to unique situations. Implicit WM is involved in the automation of behavior, which occurs through interaction with cortical and subcortical systems that guide sensory-motor anticipation and the prediction of reward. This article reviews evidence that implicit WM interacts with cortical-cerebellar and cortical-basal ganglia connections to form perception-action linkages. The cerebellum forms an internal model of cortical WM, corrects the content of this internal model, and then projects the improved representation back to the cortex, where it is retained for future use. The basal ganglia also form an anticipatory system, controlling cortical access to WM by allowing or restricting the information that is released based on the probability of reward. This framework is applied to the assessment and treatment of individuals with WM deficits. The ability to automate behavior can be assessed through repeated trials of existing testing instruments, such as the Trails B and Stroop tasks. Application of skill learning emphasizing automation as an end goal offers a model for the development of new types of WM training.

The system neurophysiological basis of non‐adaptive cognitive control: Inhibition of implicit learning mediated by right prefrontal regions

“…This confirms that the manipulation of (effortful) cognitive control demands was effective and resulted in two different tasks despite the fact that both tasks used exactly the same stimuli and that the task rules were (theoretically) arbitrary. Limited response selection resources or working memory capacities could supposedly be "used up" by the task demands in case of high cognitive control, so that the beneficial information of the predictive feature is blocked from the response selection stage and thus can no longer impinge on behavior [e.g., Cui et al, 2015;Joyce, 2016]. Most importantly, however, the predictive feature only conveyed an advantage (i.e., improved accuracy) in case of low control demands, but not in case of high control demands.…”

“…There are two possible explanations for this effect. Limited response selection resources or working memory capacities could supposedly be "used up" by the task demands in case of high cognitive control, so that the beneficial information of the predictive feature is blocked from the response selection stage and thus can no longer impinge on behavior [e.g., Cui et al, 2015;Joyce, 2016]. In case of low control demands, there would however still be capacities left for the exploration of additional available implicit information.…”

Visual working memory in early development: a developmental cognitive neuroscience perspective

“…To the extent that working memory is a short-term memory used in service of a task (e.g., a decision followed by a button press), then nearly all adult tasks test both working memory and short-term memory. However, there is growing consensus that working memory may also operate below the level of awareness (Hassin et al 2009;Joyce 2016). This is important for work exploring infant VSTM and may help bridge the gap between infant, toddler, and adult tasks.…”

The Relationship Between Sequential Implicit Learning and Visuospatial Working Memory Capacity: A Developmental Study

“…Another important cognitive variable is working memory which is defined as a temporary storage of information that allows information manipulation (Baddeley, 1992). Investigations showed that working memory capacity has a significant effect on conscious learning (Daneman & Carpenter, 1980;Foster et al, 2014;Hitch et al, 2001;Joyce, 2016). As a result, researchers have interested to investigate if SIL could be influenced by working memory (Frensch & Miner, 1994;Janacsek & Nemeth, 2013;Martini et al, 2013;Schwarb & Schumacher, 2009).…”