Implicit learning of color-word associations using a Stroop paradigm.

Musen, Gail; Squire, Larry R.

doi:10.1037/0278-7393.19.4.789

Cited by 77 publications

(84 citation statements)

References 57 publications

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“…Interestingly, Musen and Squire (1993) also report that contingency learning appears to be implicit, which runs counter to the assumption that contingency learning effects (e.g., the proportion congruent effect) result from explicit strategy use. Experiment 1 in their paper was similar to their Experiment 2, except that instead of arbitrary words, incongruent colour words were paired with colours and then re-paired partway through (e.g., BLUE was presented in green for half the experiment, then orange for the rest).…”

Section: Implicit Controlmentioning

confidence: 58%

“…Thus, participants may be using the contingencies between words and colours to predict a specific response rather than congruency in general. In support of this contention, Musen and Squire (1993) demonstrated contingency learning independent of any congruency relations between the words and colours. In their Experiment 2 they paired each of seven arbitrary words (e.g., SOCKS) with a colour.…”

Section: Implicit Controlmentioning

confidence: 69%

“…Because Musen and Squire's (1993) reanalysed results indicate that participants guessed the contingencies at a rate greater than chance, it may be the case that all contingency learning in their experiments was explicit (i.e., conscious). On the other hand, this is not necessarily the case.…”

Section: Implicit Controlmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…One methodological concern with Musen and Squire's (1993) design is that the words are perfectly correlated with the responses. Thus, it is difficult rule out the possibility that some or all of the participants were making responses by identifying the word rather than the colour, thus leading to significant impairment in responding when the words were re-paired with new colours.…”

Section: Implicit Controlmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Thus, Musen and Squire's data indicate that participants are guessing contingencies at a rate better than chance when chance is calculated correctly. As such, it remains to be determined whether participants can learn contingencies implicitly.Because Musen and Squire's (1993) reanalysed results indicate that participants guessed the contingencies at a rate greater than chance, it may be the case that all contingency learning in their experiments was explicit (i.e., conscious). On the other hand, this is not necessarily the case.…”

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confidence: 99%

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Contingency learning without awareness: Evidence for implicit control

Schmidt

Crump

Cheesman

et al. 2007

Consciousness and Cognition

164

268

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The results of four experiments provide evidence for controlled processing in the absence of awareness. Participants identified the colour of a neutral distracter word. Each of four words (e.g., MOVE) was presented in one of four colours 75% of the time (Experiments 1 and 4) or 50% of the time (Experiment 2 and 3). Colour identification was faster when the words appeared in the colour they were most often presented in relative to when they appeared in another colour, even for participants who were subjectively unaware of any contingencies between the words and colours. An analysis of sequence effects showed that participants who were unaware of the relation between distracter words and colours nonetheless controlled the impact of the word on performance depending on the nature of the previous trial. A block analysis of contingencyunaware participants revealed that contingencies were learned rapidly in the first block of trials.Experiment 3 showed that the contingency effect does not depend on level of awareness, thus ruling out explicit strategy accounts. Finally, Experiment 4 showed that the contingency effect results from behavioural control and not from semantic association or stimulus familiarity. These results thus provide evidence for implicit control. Implicit Control 3Contingency Learning without Awareness: Evidence for Implicit Control Cognitive processes that are controlled are conventionally assumed to operate in a slow, effortful, and voluntary manner (Posner & Cohen, 1984;Posner & Snyder, 1975; Shiffrin & Schnieder, 1977). Thus, when researchers discuss the influence of "controlled" processes, it is typically assumed that such processes are explicit (i.e., conscious; cf., Besner & Stolz, 1999). As such, the term "implicit control" would seem to be nonsensical, because "implicit" (i.e., unconscious) seems to preclude the possibility of control. However, etymologically speaking this is not a necessary conclusion. The Oxford English Dictionary (2001) Evidence for cognitive control, which is assumed to be explicit and strategic in nature, has been drawn from the Stroop literature (Stroop, 1935). In the Stroop task, identification of the print colour of colour words is slower when the word and ink colour are incongruent (e.g., the word GREEN in orange; GREEN orange ) than when they are congruent (e.g., ORANGE orange ; see MacLeod, 1991, for a review). Probably the most important demonstration of putatively controlled processes in the Stroop literature is the proportion congruent effect. The proportion congruent effect refers to the finding that the size of the Stroop effect is influenced by the proportion of congruent items in a block of trials (Lindsay & Jacoby, 1994;Logan & Zbrodoff, 1979). Specifically, the Stroop effect is much larger in a high proportion congruent block of trials than in a low proportion congruent block of trials. This effect is commonly attributed to Implicit Control 4 participants explicitly learning to predict the colour from the word. Specifically, because the word us...

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Section: Implicit Controlmentioning

confidence: 58%

Section: Implicit Controlmentioning

confidence: 69%

Section: Implicit Controlmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Implicit Controlmentioning

confidence: 99%

mentioning

confidence: 99%

See 3 more Smart Citations

Contingency learning without awareness: Evidence for implicit control

Schmidt

Crump

Cheesman

et al. 2007

Consciousness and Cognition

164

268

View full text Add to dashboard Cite

show abstract

A nonconscious processing explanation of consumer response to product design

Veryzer

1999

Psychol. Mark.

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A comparison and evaluation of the predictions of relational and conjunctive accounts of hippocampal function

2005

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Relational and conjunctive memory theory each postulate that the hippocampus participates in the formation of long-term memory representations comprised of associations between multiple elements. The goals of the current work were to clarify and contrast these theories by outlining the nature of the representations that are spared vs. impaired following hippocampal damage according to each theoretical perspective. Relational theory predicts that hippocampal lesions will impair performance on tasks that require the formation of new long-term representations in which distinct elements must be regarded in relation to all other elements. Representations that remain intact despite hippocampal damage include separate representations of distinct individual elements or multiple stimuli fused into a static "blend" such as several elements viewed from one vantage point. Additionally, the relational account predicts that rapid incidental online processing of the relations can be achieved through structures other than the hippocampus, but this information will not be stored. In contrast, conjunctive theory predicts that hippocampal damage will impair the rapid formation of unitary representations that contain features of elements and their relative relationships bound in an inflexible manner. Deficits in the rapid formation of these conjunctive representations result in impaired performance on tasks that require rapid incidental stimulus binding. However, intact formation of conjunctive representations can occur over multiple trials in the service of problem solving. Using these theoretical frameworks, recent findings from the human and nonhuman animal literature are reexamined in order to determine whether one theory better accounts for current findings. We discuss empirical studies that serve as "critical experiments" in addressing the relational vs. conjunctive debate, and find that the predictions of relational theory are supported by existing findings over those from the conjunctive account.

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Implicit learning of color-word associations using a Stroop paradigm.

Cited by 77 publications

References 57 publications

Contingency learning without awareness: Evidence for implicit control

Contingency learning without awareness: Evidence for implicit control

A nonconscious processing explanation of consumer response to product design

A comparison and evaluation of the predictions of relational and conjunctive accounts of hippocampal function

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