Implications of Zoonoses From Hunting and Use of Wildlife in North American Arctic and Boreal Biomes: Pandemic Potential, Monitoring, and Mitigation

Abstract

The COVID-19 pandemic has re-focused attention on mechanisms that lead to zoonotic disease spillover and spread. Commercial wildlife trade, and associated markets, are recognized mechanisms for zoonotic disease emergence, resulting in a growing global conversation around reducing human disease risks from spillover associated with hunting, trade, and consumption of wild animals. These discussions are especially relevant to people who rely on harvesting wildlife to meet nutritional, and cultural needs, including those in Arctic and boreal regions. Global policies around wildlife use and trade can impact food sovereignty and security, especially of Indigenous Peoples. We reviewed known zoonotic pathogens and current risks of transmission from wildlife (including fish) to humans in North American Arctic and boreal biomes, and evaluated the epidemic and pandemic potential of these zoonoses. We discuss future concerns, and consider monitoring and mitigation measures in these changing socio-ecological systems. While multiple zoonotic pathogens circulate in these systems, risks to humans are mostly limited to individual illness or local community outbreaks. These regions are relatively remote, subject to very cold temperatures, have relatively low wildlife, domestic animal, and pathogen diversity, and in many cases low density, including of humans. Hence, favorable conditions for emergence of novel diseases or major amplification of a spillover event are currently not present. The greatest risk to northern communities from pathogens of pandemic potential is via introduction with humans visiting from other areas. However, Arctic and boreal ecosystems are undergoing rapid changes through climate warming, habitat encroachment, and development; all of which can change host and pathogen relationships, thereby affecting the probability of the emergence of new (and re-emergence of old) zoonoses. Indigenous leadership and engagement in disease monitoring, prevention and response, is vital from the outset, and would increase the success of such efforts, as well as ensure the protection of Indigenous rights as outlined in the United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples. Partnering with northern communities and including Indigenous Knowledge Systems would improve the timeliness, and likelihood, of detecting emerging zoonotic risks, and contextualize risk assessments to the unique human-wildlife relationships present in northern biomes.

Serological Detection of Marine Origin Brucella Exposure in Two Alaska Beluga Stocks

“…Lastly, given the nutritional and cultural importance of belugas for circumpolar indigenous communities, monitoring for Brucella sp. in marine mammals that are harvested for subsistence will remain important from a ONE-health perspective [ 50 ].…”

Wolverines (Gulo gulo) in the Arctic: Revisiting distribution and identifying research and conservation priorities amid rapid environmental change

“…Most parasites found in wolverines use the species as a definitive host, which likely reduces health consequences (Watson et al 2020 ), and although several bacterial taxa known to cause disease in other species are found in wolverine, bacterial disease induction in wolverines is so far undocumented (Watson 2020 ). Toxoplasmosis and Trichinellosis in humans, typically arising from undercooked parasitized meat consumption, are increasing concerns in Arctic communities relying on subsistence hunting (Keatts et al 2021 ). Wolverines, which are rarely consumed, are unlikely vectors for these diseases, but handling and skinning animals has been identified as a risk factor in certain contexts and therefore care is warranted when handling live or dead wolverines (McDonald et al 1990 ; Keatts et al 2021 ; Sharma et al 2021 ).…”

“…Toxoplasmosis and Trichinellosis in humans, typically arising from undercooked parasitized meat consumption, are increasing concerns in Arctic communities relying on subsistence hunting (Keatts et al 2021 ). Wolverines, which are rarely consumed, are unlikely vectors for these diseases, but handling and skinning animals has been identified as a risk factor in certain contexts and therefore care is warranted when handling live or dead wolverines (McDonald et al 1990 ; Keatts et al 2021 ; Sharma et al 2021 ). Keatts et al ( 2021 ) note the potential for coronavirus transmission between humans and wolverines.…”

“…Species typically associated with boreal forest, including moose ( Alces alces ), beavers ( Castor canadensis ), and snowshoe hares ( Lepus americanus ) are shifting northward into the treeless Arctic following shrubification (Jung et al 2016 ; Tape et al 2016a , b , 2018 ), while the ranges of specialist Arctic species such as Lapland longspurs ( Calcarius lapponicus ) are contracting (Boelman et al 2015 ). Disease transmission, mediated by the abiotic and biotic environments, is changing as well (Ruscio et al 2015 ; Keatts et al 2021 ). Accompanying and driving these changes are an expanding human footprint, largely associated with resource extraction and facilitated by advancements in over-snow travel technology (Landa et al 2000 ; Kumpula et al 2012 ; Raynolds et al 2014 ).…”

Risk of Infection, Local Prevalence and Seasonal Changes in an Avian Malaria Community Associated with Game Bird Releases

“…Among these perturbations, common practices used today such as the relocation and introduction of animals have played a significant role on the emergence and spread of several diseases [4][5][6][7][8][9][10], with significant consequences for wildlife, domestic animals, and humans [11,12]. The human-based spread of infectious agents over new areas jeopardizes wild animal populations by exposure to exotic pathogens [13][14][15][16], some of which may be parasites harboured by introduced animals [17][18][19][20][21]. Avian malaria is a paradigmatic case of a widespread vector-transmitted disease with negative effects on the survival and fitness of many bird species [22][23][24][25].…”