Impact of Meal Timing and Chronotype on Food Reward and Appetite Control in Young Adults

Abstract

<jats:p>Early meal timing and chronotype are associated with lower BMI, but their impact on appetite is poorly understood. We examined the impact of meal timing and chronotype on appetite and food reward. Forty-four adults were divided into early (EC; Morningness–Eveningness Questionnaire (MEQ) score = 55 ± 5) or late chronotype (LC; MEQ score = 40 ± 6) and assessed for body mass index, habitual energy intake (EI; three-day online dietary record) and eating behavior traits from the Three-Factor Eating Questionnaire (TFEQ). Participants attended the laboratory after ≥3 h fast on two occasions for early (AM; 8–10 a.m.) and late (PM; 4–6 p.m.) counterbalanced testing sessions in a 2 × 2 design. Appetite ratings and food reward (validated diurnal Leeds Food Preference Questionnaire) were measured in response to a standardized test meal. LC was associated with higher BMI (p = 0.01), but not with EI or TFEQ. The composite appetite score was lower in AM than PM (MΔ= −5 (95% CI −10, −0.2) mm, p = 0.040). Perceived test meal fillingness was higher in AM than PM and EC compared to LC (p ≤ 0.038). Liking and wanting high-fat food were lower in AM than PM (p ≤ 0.004). The late chronotype was associated with greater desire for high-fat food (p = 0.006). To conclude, early meal timing and early chronotype are independently associated with smaller appetite and lower desire for high-fat food.</jats:p>

Meal Timing and Macronutrient Composition Modulate Human Metabolism and Reward-Related Drive to Eat

“…Another factor, such as chronotype, i.e., the individual circadian phenotype in behavioral and biological rhythms, is influenced by genetic and environmental factors and has also been associated with obesity and chronic diseases [ 18 , 19 ]. It has been recently demonstrated that early meal timing and early chronotype are associated with a reduced appetite and desire for high-fat foods [ 20 ]. More recently, the eating speed of a meal has also been associated with the risk of cardiometabolic risk factors in the context of obesity [ 21 ].…”

Role of the Synchronization of Circadian Clock by Meal-Timing in Obesity and Type 2 Diabetes

“…However, and paradoxically, the diurnal variation of appetite and craving scores, show the inverse oscillation, with higher hunger and food reward impulses, in the evening hours, which appears to be in conflict with the recommended meal timing [17,60]. Hunger and craving scores are at the lowest in the morning hours (8-10 a.m.) and the highest scores are found in the afternoon (4 p.m. to 6 p.m.) [17,38,60]. Craving for sweets is slightly dissociated from hunger, increasing throughout the day and peaking in the late afternoon and early evening, around 7 p.m. [16,56,59].…”

“…Meal timing disruption or misalignment within the circadian rhythms, like skipping breakfast or snacking at night, promotes asynchrony of clock gene expression and metabolic disturbances, i.e., weight gain, hyperglycemia [13]. In contrast, greater intake in the morning than in the evening has a resetting effect on clock gene oscillation [14][15][16], and is associated with beneficial effects on weight loss, glycemia, and appetite control, independent of total energy intake [15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24][25][26].…”

“…Many recent studies show the advantage, of meal timing schedule aligned with the circadian clock by shifting more energy and CH to early hours of the day, and reducing energy and CH, in the afternoon and evening, to achieve weight loss and glycemic control [7,16,17,22]. However, and paradoxically, the diurnal variation of appetite and craving scores, show the inverse oscillation, with higher hunger and food reward impulses, in the evening hours, which appears to be in conflict with the recommended meal timing [17,60]. Hunger and craving scores are at the lowest in the morning hours (8-10 a.m.) and the highest scores are found in the afternoon (4 p.m. to 6 p.m.) [17,38,60].…”

“…Indeed, obese and diabetics are typically not hungry, not ravenous, and have minimal hedonic impulses upon waking up, consequently, breakfast is typically the smallest meal of the day, while in the evening when the high energy and CH consumption is associated with weight gain and higher glycemic responses, is the time when those obese and obese with T2D, perceive more hunger and hedonic impulses, especially for sweets [16,21,60]. Further, the omission of breakfast appears to have additive effects, further increasing the appetite and reward responses (i.e., carb-craving) in the evening [17].…”