Immunotoxicity and intestinal effects of nano- and microplastics: a review of the literature

Abstract

Background Together with poor biodegradability and insufficient recycling, the massive production and use of plastics have led to widespread environmental contamination by nano- and microplastics. These particles accumulate across ecosystems - even in the most remote habitats - and are transferred through food chains, leading to inevitable human ingestion, that adds to the highest one due to food processes and packaging. Objective The present review aimed at providing a comprehensive overview of current knowledge regarding the effects of nano- and microplastics on intestinal homeostasis. Methods We conducted a literature search focused on the in vivo effects of nano- and microplastics on gut epithelium and microbiota, as well as on immune response. Results Numerous animal studies have shown that exposure to nano- and microplastics leads to impairments in oxidative and inflammatory intestinal balance, and disruption of the gut’s epithelial permeability. Other notable effects of nano- and microplastic exposure include dysbiosis (changes in the gut microbiota) and immune cell toxicity. Moreover, microplastics contain additives, adsorb contaminants, and may promote the growth of bacterial pathogens on their surfaces: they are potential carriers of intestinal toxicants and pathogens that can potentially lead to further adverse effects. Conclusion Despite the scarcity of reports directly relevant to human, this review brings together a growing body of evidence showing that nano- and microplastic exposure disturbs the gut microbiota and critical intestinal functions. Such effects may promote the development of chronic immune disorders. Further investigation of this threat to human health is warranted.

The Impact of Nanoparticles on Innate Immune Activation by Live Bacteria

“…These results are, however, contrasted by other findings that show no or a positive impact of Ag NPs on the relative abundance of these bacterial taxa in the intestinal microbiota of rodents [ 128 , 129 , 130 ]. Exposure to micro- and nanoplastics has also been proposed as a potential cause of gut dysbiosis [ 131 , 132 ]. Further investigation will help reveal the extent by which NPs can disrupt the commensal microbiota and the consequent impact of NPs on gastro-intestinal conditions.…”

Underestimated health risks: polystyrene micro- and nanoplastics jointly induce intestinal barrier dysfunction by ROS-mediated epithelial cell apoptosis

“…Waste plastics are continuously degraded by various physicochemical processes, generating so-called microplastics (size < 5 mm) and nanoplastics (size < 100 nm), based upon the diameter of the plastic particles [2]. Due to the small plastic particle size, micro-and nanoplastics are easily ingested by organisms and enter their bodies where they affect biological health [3,4]. Recent data have revealed that micro-and nanoplastics are found in aquatic foods, tap water, beer, sea salt and packaged beverages [5][6][7][8].…”

Review of the valorization options for the proper disposal of face masks during the COVID-19 pandemic

“…Moreover, disposable face masks are produced using polymeric materials, which are a voluminous source of microplastics in the environment ( Ammendolia et al, 2021 , Aragaw, 2020 , Shen et al, 2021 ). The disintegration of face masks in the form of micro- and nanoplastic waste due to various environmental factors (e.g., temperature, humidity, and salinity) will deteriorate the health of living creatures and worsen the environmental situation ( Hirt and Body-Malapel, 2020 , Toussaint et al, 2019 , Wang et al, 2021 , Zhang et al, 2020 ).…”