Immunotherapy of breast cancer: A review of the development of cell‐specific therapy

Abstract

A brief history of immunotherapy for breast cancer is presented, with emphasis on how theories developed as the field of immunology became more sophisticated. Non-specific therapies, such as Bacillus Calmette-Guérin, levamisole, interferon, interleukin, and others are reviewed. A form of cell-specific immunotherapy is then presented, and some current results are summarized. Problems and proposals for the future development of immunotherapy for breast cancer are then presented.

lncRNA CASC9 positively regulates CHK1 to promote breast cancer cell proliferation and survival through sponging the miR‑195/497 cluster

“…Approximately 1.7 million women are estimated to be diagnosed with BC annually worldwide, resulting in 522,000 deaths (5). The lack of curative therapeutic strategies and drug resistance may be partially responsible for the high mortality rate associated with BC (6,7). Despite great progress being made in the diagnosis and treatment of BC over the past several decades (1,2,6,7), the long-term prognosis for patients with BC remains unfavorable.…”

“…The lack of curative therapeutic strategies and drug resistance may be partially responsible for the high mortality rate associated with BC (6,7). Despite great progress being made in the diagnosis and treatment of BC over the past several decades (1,2,6,7), the long-term prognosis for patients with BC remains unfavorable. Hence, there is an urgent need for the development of effective therapeutic alternatives for BC and for the identification of sensitive biomarkers for BC prognosis.…”

Effect of Estrogen and Antiestrogen Therapy in Rats Bearing Mesenchymal Tumors

“…Since estrogens influence the immune system [23] and immune reactions are known to contribute to host resistance to tumors [24], it has been hypothesized that TAM acts as a biological response modifier, stimulating some immunological functions like NK cells and CTL activities both in vitro and in vivo [25,26] while suppressing some others, for example lymphocyte mitogenesis and antibody formation [27]. NK cells and CTL functions in tumor defense have so far been established, and the TAM effects on these immune cells might contribute to the tumor control in our experimental model.…”