Immunotherapy for the treatment of breast cancer

Abstract

Breast cancer is the most common cancer as well as the first cause of death by cancer in women worldwide. Although routine treatment improves the outcome of early stage breast cancer patients, there is no effective therapy for the disseminated disease. Immunotherapy has emerged as a powerful therapeutic strategy for the treatment of many cancers. Although traditionally conceived as a non-immunogenic tumor, breast cancer is now considered a potential target for immunotherapy. Areas covered: In this review, the authors discuss different immunotherapeutic strategies that are currently being tested for the treatment of breast cancer: These strategies include: (i) blockade of immunological checkpoints, (ii) antitumor vaccines, (iii) regulatory T cell blockade, (iv) adoptive T cell transfer therapy, (iv) adoptive immunotherapy with monoclonal antibodies, and (v) combination of immunotherapy with chemotherapy. Expert opinion: A growing body of evidence indicates that immunotherapeutic strategies can benefit a larger cohort of breast cancer patients than hitherto anticipated. Since breast tumors entail multiple mechanisms to impair antitumor immunity, the immunological characterization of individual tumors and the selection of suitable combinations of chemotherapeutic and immunotherapeutic approaches are required to achieve significant clinical benefit in these patients.

NRSN2 promotes breast cancer metastasis by activating PI3K/AKT/mTOR and NF‑κB signaling pathways

“…A review reported genetic analyses and inherited gene mutations in patients with breast cancer (4,5). Although advances in molecular diagnosis and medical treatments, including surgical techniques, radiation, chemotherapy and gene target therapy, have improved the 5-year survival rate of patients with breast cancer, the overall clinical outcomes remain poor (6)(7)(8)(9). It is therefore essential to determine potential target proteins to inhibit breast cancer growth and metastasis.…”

The Physiological MicroRNA Landscape in Nipple Aspirate Fluid: Differences and Similarities with Breast Tissue, Breast Milk, Plasma and Serum

“…Not only these miRNAs, but the majority of highly ranked miRNAs in NAF are involved in cellular proliferation, differentiation, apoptosis and/or target commonly known mRNAs involved in carcinogenesis, like PTEN, BCL2 and VEGFA. Moreover, all the top 10 miRNAs in NAF play a prominent role in immunity, which is of increasing relevance in the context of breast cancer immunotherapy treatment [64][65][66]. Altogether, this shows that miRNAs detected in NAF have established roles in breast carcinogenesis.…”

Harnessing the immune system in the battle against breast cancer

“…Other immune checkpoints have also been identified, including two inhibitory signals that are co-expressed by activated T cells and upregulated with PD-1 on chronically stimulated tumor-infiltrating lymphocytes – lymphocyte activation gene 3 (LAG3) [ 133 ] and T-cell immunoglobulin and mucin domain 3 (TIM-3) [ 134 ] – and a co-stimulatory receptor in the TNF family of receptors called OX40 that is capable of promoting CD8 + T-cell proliferation and activity, inhibiting generation of Tregs, and expanding memory CD4 + T-cell populations [ 135 ]. Early-phase clinical trials with these agents are underway and have been reviewed elsewhere [ 136 ].…”