Immunopathogenesis of patients with COVID-19: from the perspective of immune system ‘evolution’ and ‘revolution’

Abstract

The pandemic caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 is sweeping the world, threatening millions of lives and drastically altering our ways of living. According to current studies, failure to either activate or eliminate inflammatory responses timely and properly at certain stages could result in the progression of the disease. In other words, robust immune responses to coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) are critical. However, they do not theoretically present in some special groups of people, including the young, the aged, patients with autoimmunity or cancer. Differences also do occur between men and women. Our immune system evolves to ensure delicate coordination at different stages of life. The innate immune cells mainly consisted of myeloid lineage cells, including neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, dendritic cells and mast cells; they possess phagocytic capacity to different degrees at different stages of life. They are firstly recruited upon infection and may activate the adaptive immunity when needed. The adaptive immune cells, on the other way, are comprised mainly of lymphoid lineages. As one grows up, the adaptive immunity matures and expands its memory repertoire, accompanied by an adjustment in quantity and quality. In this review, we would summarise and analyse the immunological characteristics of these groups from the perspective of the immune system ‘evolution’ as well as ‘revolution’ that has been studied and speculated so far, which would aid the comprehensive understanding of COVID-19 and personalised-treatment strategy.

Immunodiagnosis — the promise of personalized immunotherapy

“…SARS-CoV-2 infection can cause long-term perturbations in immune status ( 95 ). Notably, change of immune cells, antibody production, and cytokine release due to SARS-CoV-2 infection are influenced by confounding factors such as age, gender, and tumor treatment, which should be taken into consideration comprehensively ( 96 ). Tumors and COVID-19 share similar immune processes, such as excessive cytokine release and weakened humoral and cellular immunity.…”