Immunity after COVID-19 Recovery and Vaccination: Similarities and Differences

Abstract

The coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic, caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), is associated with a robust immune response. The development of systemic inflammation leads to a hyperinflammatory state due to cytokine release syndrome during severe COVID-19. The emergence of many new SARS-CoV-2 variants across the world deteriorates the protective antiviral immunity induced after infection or vaccination. The innate immune response to SARS-CoV-2 is crucial for determining the fate of COVID-19 symptomatology. T cell-mediated immunity is the main factor of the antiviral immune response; moreover, SARS-CoV-2 infection initiates a rapid B-cell response. In this paper, we present the current state of knowledge on immunity after COVID-19 infection and vaccination. We discuss the mechanisms of immune response to various types of vaccines (nucleoside-modified, adenovirus-vectored, inactivated virus vaccines and recombinant protein adjuvanted formulations). This includes specific aspects of vaccination in selected patient populations with altered immune activity (the elderly, children, pregnant women, solid organ transplant recipients, patients with systemic rheumatic diseases or malignancies). We also present diagnostic and research tools available to study the anti-SARS-CoV-2 cellular and humoral immune responses.

The comparison of SARS-CoV-2 antibody levels in medical personnel induced by different types of vaccines compared to the natural infection

“…It is known that IgM and IgG are not predictors of disease severity, but the peak antibody titres are positively associated with the COVID-19 disease severity [33]. Choteau et al [34] found in their research that a higher titre of virus-specific antibodies was associated with severe COVID-19 infection compared to asymptomatic patients.…”

“…It is known that IgM and IgG are not predictors of disease severity, but the peak antibody titres are positively associated with the COVID-19 disease severity [ 33 ]. Choteau et al .…”

Willingness to Pay (WTP) for COVID-19 Vaccine Booster Dose and Its Determinants in Indonesia

“…The relevance of the current study is that, first, the sustainability of vaccine procurement can be compromised over time particularly in low-income countries [ 38 ]. Second, there is growing evidence showing the value of booster doses of COVID-19 vaccines stemming from the continuous emergence of SARS-CoV-2 variants with immune escape potential, and the declining immunity following the uptake of the primary vaccine doses [ 5 , 39 , 40 , 41 , 42 ]. Third, the continuous need to receive the booster doses for proper control of COVID-19 might lead to vaccination fatigue, which highlights the need for separate studies to evaluate the general public attitude towards repeated vaccination [ 43 ].…”

Effect of COVID vaccination on monthly migraine days: a longitudinal cohort study

“…11,12 The mRNA vaccines, such as BNT162b2 (Pfizer, New York, NY, USA/ BioNTech, Mainz, Germany) 13 and mRNA-1273 (Moderna, Cambridge, MA, USA) 14 , use a different technique by solely using a RNA strand coding for the antigenic sequence of the spike protein (S-protein), modified to increase mRNA translation in vivo. 15 After mRNA translation, the newly synthesized S-proteins are presented on the surface of the APCs, activating the immune system cascade mentioned above. The mRNA vaccines thus bypass the need for viral DNA to be integrated into the nucleus, and instead directly provide the instructions for the body to produce the S-protein fragment of the SARS-CoV-2 virus.…”