Immune cell targeted fumaric esters support a role of GPR109A as a primary target of monomethyl fumarate in vivo

Abstract

Dimethyl fumarate (DMF) is approved as a treatment for multiple sclerosis (MS), however, its mode of action remains unclear. One hypothesis proposes that Michael addition to thiols by DMF, notably glutathione is immunomodulatory. The alternative proposes that monomethyl fumarate (MMF), the hydrolysis product of DMF, is a ligand to the fatty acid receptor GPR109A found in the lysosomes of immune cells. We prepared esters of MMF and macrolides derived from azithromycin, which were tropic to immune cells by virtue of lysosomal trapping. We tested the effects of these substances in an assay of response to LPS in freshly isolated human peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs). In this system, we observed that the 4'' ester of MMF (compound 2 and 3) reduced levels of IL-1β, IL-12 and TNFα significantly at a concentration of 1 µM, while DMF required about 25 µM for the same effect. The 2' esters of MMF (compound 1 and 2) were, like MMF itself, inactive in vitro. The 4'' ester formed glutathione conjugates rapidly while the 2' conjugates did not react with thiols but did hydrolyze slowly to release MMF in these cells. We then tested the substances in vivo using the imiquimod/isostearate model of psoriasis where the 2' ester was the most active at 0.06 to 0.12 mg/kg (approximately 0.1 µmol/kg), improving skin score, body weight and cytokine levels (TNFα, IL-17A, IL-17F, IL-6, IL-1β, NLRP3 and IL-23A). In contrast, the thiol reactive 4'' ester was less active than the 2' ester while DMF was ca. 300-fold less active. The thiol reactive 4'' ester was not easily recovered from either plasma or organs while the 2' ester exhibited conventional uptake and elimination. The 2' ester also reduced levels of IL-6 in acute MSU induced inflammation. These data suggest that mechanisms that are relevant in vivo center on the release of MMF. Given that GPR109A is localized to the lysosome, and that lysosomal trapping increases 2' ester activity by >300 fold, these data suggest that GPR109A may be the main target in vivo. In contrast, the effects associated with GSH conjugation in vitro are unlikely to be as effective in vivo due the much lower dose in use which cannot titrate the more concentrated thiols. These data support the case for GPR109A modulation in autoimmune diseases.

Pattern-Recognition Receptors and Immunometabolic Reprogramming: What We Know and What to Explore

“…DMF breaks into MMF, a ligand for a niacin receptor 1 (Niacr1) gene-encoded G protein-coupled receptor called GPR109a or hydroxycarboxylic acid receptor 2 (HCAR2). The MMF recognition by GPR109a in the lysosomes of immune cells inhibits NLRP3 inflammasome-dependent IL-1β production along with L-6, IL-12, and TNF-α [ 184 ]. Furthermore, GPR109a activation in macrophages and DCs induces anti-inflammatory molecules, such as IL-10 and aldehyde dehydrogenase 1 family member 1A (ALDH1A) expression [ 185 ].…”