“…In response to these concerns, a burgeoning literature documents the empirical relationship between immigration and crime across local areas within the United States (Butcher and Piehl 1998;Reid et al 2005;Moehling and Piehl 2007;Borjas, Grogger, and Hanson 2010;Wadsworth 2010;Spenkuch 2011), the United Kingdom (Bell, Machin, and Fasani 2010), Italy (Bianchi, Buonanno, and Pinotti 2012), and Spain (Alonso-Borrego, Garoupa, and Vàzquez 2012). However, the effect of legal status on immigrants' crime has remained largely unexplored, despite there being ample evidence that legal status improves greatly the labor market opportunities of immigrants (Bratsberg, Ragan, and Nasir 2002;Kossoudji and CobbClark 2002;Kaushal 2006;Amuedo-Dorantes, Bansak, and Raphael 2007;Lozano and Sorensen 2011).…”