If government failed, how are we to succeed? The importance of history and context in present-day irrigation reform in Malawi.

Abstract

This chapter examines the interface between new, formal irrigation, water policies and laws and long-standing customary practices in two smallholder irrigation schemes earmarked for transfer to water user associations in Malawi. It documents how local histories and practices are shaping access to critical land and water resources in ways not anticipated by technocratic irrigation and water reform implementers. At this point, rather than creating a climate encouraging more equitable economic growth by making smallholder farmers' rights to land and water resources more secure, the opposite seems to be taking place as formalization opens the door for local elites to use diverse strategies to capture these resources.

Water user associations: a review of approaches and alternative management options for Sub-Saharan Africa

“…Others sketch similar situations in different countries. For example, Ferguson and Mulwafu (2007) reported that the top-down enforcement of WUAs weakened smallholder farmer participation in Malawi. Also, in Kenya, Kemerink et al (2016Kemerink et al ( : 1072 found that WUA members cannot participate meaningfully due to "predetermined and biased organization structures introduced by the policy" despite the established legal basis for WUA formation.…”

“…Leadership positions are often assumed by local elites through various means (Ferguson and Mulwafu 2007;Kemerink et al 2016;Sokile and van Koppen 2004), even when they have technically been 'elected' by all WUA members (Zuka 2016). In this position, local elites benefit most "from new opportunities provided by the irrigation reform in terms of training, access to information and abilities to shape the rules governing scheme functioning" (Ferguson and Mulwafu 2007: 224).…”

“…In this position, local elites benefit most "from new opportunities provided by the irrigation reform in terms of training, access to information and abilities to shape the rules governing scheme functioning" (Ferguson and Mulwafu 2007: 224). For example, in Malawi, WUA leaders were able to reallocate plots within the irrigation system to their own family members (Ferguson and Mulwafu 2007), and informal and formal procedures often excluded women (Lefore et al 2017).…”

“…In principle, the governance rules of WUAs, the 'internal code' or 'bylaws', should be set by WUAs themselves through a participatory process (Vandersypen et al 2007). In reality, WUA bylaws are likely to be prescribed by the external funding agents or by national government agencies and not developed by the WUA members themselves (Abernethy et al 2000;Ferguson and Mulwafu 2007;Kemerink et al 2013;Vandersypen et al 2007;Yami 2013). In addition, irrigation scheme farmers often effectively ignore rules or bylaws or replace them with local institutions that have their own political interests.…”

Anthropology and impact evaluation: a critical commentary

“…But livelihood strategies in rural Malawi are much more complex than this and, importantly, involve the complex interplay of farming both inside and outside of irrigation schemes with farmers having access to both sorts of land (Ferguson and Mulwafu 2007). It is unlikely ever to be the case that farmers are full time irrigators.…”