Identification of Plasmodium relictum causing mortality in penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) from São Paulo Zoo, Brazil

Abstract

This study reports avian malaria caused by Plasmodium relictum in Magellanic Penguins (Spheniscus magellanicus) from São Paulo Zoo. The disease was highly infective among the birds and was clinically characterized by its acute course and high mortality. The penguins of São Paulo Zoo were housed for at least 2 years without malaria; however, they had always been maintained in an enclosure protected from mosquito exposure during the night period. When they presented pododermatitis, they were freed at night for a short period. São Paulo Zoo is located in one of the last forest remnants of the city, an area of original Atlantic forest. In the winter, the space destined for Zoo birds is shared with migratory species. Hence the possibility exists that the disease was transmitted to the penguins by mosquitoes that had previously bitten infected wild birds. Avian malaria parasites are transmitted mainly by mosquitoes of the genera Aedes and Culex, common vectors in the Atlantic forest. In this study, one Culex (Cux.) sp. was found, infected with P. relictum. There are diverse problems in housing distinct species of animals in captivity, principally when occupying the same enclosure, since it facilitates the transmission of diseases with indirect cycles, as is the case of Plasmodium spp., because certain species that cause discrete infections in some bird species can become a serious danger for others, especially penguins, which do not possess natural resistance. Thus, serious implications exist for periodically testing and administrating malaria therapy in captive penguins potentially exposed to mosquitoes during the night period, as well as other captive birds from São Paulo Zoo.

Analysis of hematologic and serum chemistry values of Spheniscus magellanicus with molecular detection of avian malarial parasites (Plasmodium spp.)

“…(Pereira et al 2009) in blood smears. Another study in Brazil reported the presence of malaria in Spheniscus magellanicus at the São Paulo zoo (Bueno et al 2010).…”

“…The detection of parasites in blood smears is still the routine diagnostic method, but may present a low sensitivity rate and is a cumbersome procedure (Perkins & Schall 2002, Belo 2007 (Griner 1974, Fix et al 1988, Brossy et al 1999, Levin et al 2009, Bueno et al 2010, Dinhopl et al 2011. Graczyk et al (1994), in search of Plasmodium spp.…”

Conservation implications of avian malaria exposure for African penguins during rehabilitation

“…3,4 Internationally, avian malaria is a known cause of mortality in captive penguins kept in outdoor displays or zoos with P. relictum and P. elongatum being the associated parasites. [6][7][8][9][10] In the case of wild birds, P. tejerai, P. cathemerium, P. nucleophilum and P. unalis could be identified in Magellanic penguins (S. magellanicus) undergoing rehabilitation along the coast of Brazil. 11 The first report of a Plasmodium infection in an African penguin in the wild was from Saldanha Bay, described as P. relictum subsp.…”

Local parasite lineage sharing in temperate grassland birds provides clues about potential origins of Galapagos avian Plasmodium

“…2011), especially in cases where a host encounters a novel parasite (e.g., Atkinson and Samuel 2010; Bueno et al. 2010). Oceanic archipelagos are often considered isolated and potentially more protected from natural colonization by novel pathogens and parasites.…”