Identification of Aquifer Recharge Sources as the Origin of Emerging Contaminants in Intensive Agricultural Areas. La Plana de Castellón, Spain

Abstract

In urban, industrial, and agricultural areas, a vast array of contaminants may be found because they are introduced into the aquifers by different recharge sources. The emerging contaminants (ECs) correspond to unregulated contaminants, which may be candidates for future regulation depending on the results of research into their potential effects on health and on monitoring data regarding their occurrence. ECs frequently found in wastewater, such as acetaminophen, carbamazepine, primidone, and sulfamethoxazole, may be good indicators of the introduction of the reclaimed water to the aquifers. The resistance of the ECs to removal in wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) causes them to be appropriate sewage markers. Plana de Castellón (Spain) is a coastal area that has been characterized by intensive citrus agriculture since the 1970s. Traditionally, in the southern sector of Plana de Castellón, 100% of irrigation water comes from groundwater. In recent years, local farmers have been using a mixture of groundwater and reclaimed water from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) to irrigate the citrus. The aims of the present study were: (i) to assess the occurrences, spatial distributions, and concentrations of selected ECs, including 32 antibiotics, 8 UV filters, and 2 nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs, in groundwater in a common agricultural context; (ii) to identify the recharge (pollution) sources acting as the origin of the ECs, and (iii) to suggest ECs as indicators of reclaimed water arrival in detrital heterogeneous aquifers. The obtained data provided relevant information for the management of water resources and elucidated the fate and behavior of emerging contaminants in similar contexts.

Mesocosm Evaluation of the Safety of the Use of Reclaimed Water Regarding Emerging Pollutants in Murcia, Spain

“…An average concentration of 1567 ng L −1 was detected in the water when in the presence of a plant and 575 ng L −1 when the water was not in the presence of a plant, and there was a very high variability among the replicate samples. These results agree with those reported by Renau-Pruñonosa et al [22], whereby DCF was found in the WWTP effluent, but only in some samples of the aquifers analyzed; the DCF was found at a maximum concentration of 4.6 ng L −1 , and they observed an almost complete degradation of this compound during the transfer of the water from the WWTP to the groundwater.…”

“…Several studies have shown that CBZ is highly stable in water [14,24]. Renau-Pruñonosa et al [22] found CBZ in all the aquifer samples they analyzed, although at extremely low concentrations (<0.2-1.9 ng L −1 ). These authors found that 98.5% was the percentage CBZ degradation during the transfer of treated water from WWTP to groundwater.…”

“…Several studies have determined their presence in water [13][14][15][16], soil [17,18], and plants [19] exposed to reclaimed water, and these studies have included an ecological risk assessment; additionally, concerns have been raised about agricultural soils receiving sewage sludge as fertilizer [20]. Also, worries persist about possible soil contamination due to the use of reclaimed water [21] and the potential transport of PPCPs to groundwater via runoff and leaching [22].…”

Characterizing the Variation of Dissolvable PAHs in Receiving Water in a Reclaimed Water Irrigation Region

“…Therefore, even for the valuable efficacy as substitute water sources, reclaimed water for irrigation and landscape at SRWIR had led to local water quality deterioration. In recent years, reclaimed water from wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) or mixtures with groundwater were still used to irrigate crop in Spain [50], Mexico [51], Iran [52], which should pay more attention to improving their WWTPs effluent quality and strict usage pattern.…”

Investigation of Groundwater Contamination and Health Implications in a Typical Semiarid Basin of North China

“…During the long residence time, it has sufficient time to interact with the surrounding media of the aquifers [9,10], and harmful elements such as fluoride, arsenic, and other toxic elements can become dissolved [11][12][13][14]. In addition, many external elements in groundwater have been shown to be elevated in recent decades in many regions around the world [15][16][17][18][19][20]. For instance, nitrogen including nitrates, nitrites, and ammonia in aquifers have been found to be elevated in both urban and agricultural areas.…”