Salvia divinorum: from Mazatec medicinal and hallucinogenic plant to emerging recreational drug

Abstract

Salvia divinorum is a sage endemic to a small region of Mexico and has been traditionally used by the Mazatec Indians for divination and spiritual healing. Recently, it has gained increased popularity as a recreational drug, used by adolescents and young adults as an alternative to marijuana and LSD. Salvinorin A, the major active ingredient of the plant, is considered to be the most potent known hallucinogen of natural origin. This review surveys the current state of knowledge on the neurochemical, pharmacokinetic, and pharmacological properties of salvinorin A, the trends and motivation behind S. divinorum use, and the health problems among users of the plant's products. S. divinorum induces intense, but short-lived, psychedelic-like changes in mood and perception, with concomitant hallucinations and disorientation. Many websites have misinterpreted the limited existing research-based information on the side effects of salvia as evidence for its safety. However, data accumulated over the last few years indicate that potential health risks are associated with the use of S. divinorum, especially by teenagers, users of other substances of abuse, and individuals with underlying psychotic disturbances. Taken together, the data presented in this review point to the need for further basic and clinical studies to create a basis for the development of well-addressed prevention and treatment strategies.

Chemogenomics knowledgebase and systems pharmacology for hallucinogen target identification—Salvinorin A as a case study

“…However, it was reported that some experiencers went through a psychic depersonalization process, which is a unique sensation of being disconnected from one‘s body (19, 20). A double-blind, placebo-controlled study of vaporized/inhaled salvinorin A in eight hallucinogen-experienced adults showed that about half of the participants exhibited a positive affect (audible laughter) during peak drug effects and one described his feeling as —hysterically, almost uncontrollably laughing.…”

Why Do Plants Contain Biologically Active Compounds?

“…In the past several years, reviews on the pharmacology of S. divinorum, salvinorin A, and its analogs have been published (Valdes et al 1983;Siebert 1994;Prisinzano 2005;Prisinzano and Rothman 2008;Grundmann et al 2007;Cunningham et al 2011;Listos et al 2011;Zawilska et al 2013) and a recent article from the Johns Hopkins University group significantly adds to the current knowledge about the effects of salvinorin A on humans (MacLean et al 2013). …”

“…As of June 2014, research on S. divinorum and salvinorin A was the subject of nearly 400 publications, including 20 review articles (Benoni 2001;Sheffler and Roth 2003;Yan and Roth 2004;Prisinzano 2005Prisinzano , 2013Prisinzano and Rothman 2008;Imanshahidi and Hosseinzadeh 2006;Roth 2006, 2011;Fichna et al 2009;Lozama and Prisinzano 2009;Hanson 2010;Saric et al 2010;Cunningham et al 2011;Listos et al 2011;Lovell et al 2011Lovell et al , 2012Piekielna et al 2012;Diaz 2013;Zawilska and Wojcieszak 2013;Casselman et al 2014). This chapter is a condensed summary of knowledge of this unique plant and its extraordinary metabolite.…”

Drug withdrawal conceptualized as a stressor

“…For example, rats can be trained to self-administer the KOR agonist RU-51599 (Marinelli et al ., 1998), and dynorphin can produce conditioned place preferences and sustain self-administration behavior under some conditions (Khazan et al ., 1983; Iwamoto, 1988). Humans self-administer salvA, although generally not compulsively (Zawilska and Wojcieszak, 2013), just as they use a variety of other chemicals (lysergic acid diethylamide, organic solvents) that may have aversive or hallucinogenic effects.…”