<i>Chrysosporium</i>sp. Infection in Eastern Massasauga Rattlesnakes

Allender, Matthew C.; Dreslik, Michael J.; Wylie, Sarah J.; Phillips, Christopher A.; Wylie, Daniel B.; Maddox, Carol W.; Delaney, Martha A.; Kinsel, Michael J.

doi:10.3201/eid1712.110240

Cited by 124 publications

(136 citation statements)

References 10 publications

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“…Fungi in deeper tissues are often encased within granulomas that may present clinically as nodules. Invasion of the cornea, maxillary bone and lungs have been reported [6,16,21], but disseminated infections caused by O. ophiodiicola are relatively uncommon in wild snakes, perhaps because most animals succumb to secondary disease processes prior to the fungal infection reaching such an advanced state.…”

Section: Pathogenesismentioning

confidence: 99%

“…At the time, it was unclear whether the infections shared a common aetiology or whether multiple species of fungi were involved. The initial cases of SFD implicated Chrysosporium ophiodiicola as the possible causative agent [6]. Subsequent genetic studies revealed C. ophiodiicola to be a cryptic member of the Chrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii (CANV), a complex of morphologically similar fungi associated with skin infections in reptiles [8].…”

Section: Causative Agentmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…In 2008, similar infections involving a fungal aetiology emerged in Illinois, USA in an imperiled population of massasaugas (Sistrurus catenatus) [6]. This infectious disease became known as snake fungal disease (SFD), and by 2015 SFD had been documented in wild snakes throughout most of the eastern USA.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…This assumption, however, is probably the result of more intensive monitoring and sampling of rattlesnake populations compared with other snake species. Outbreaks of severe disease in Lake Erie watersnake (Nerodia sipedon insularis) and eastern fox snake populations (the electronic supplementary material) demonstrate that other Nerodia fasciata confluens, broad-banded watersnake wild [19] Nerodia sipedon, common watersnake wild [10]; this study Nerodia taxispilota, brown watersnake wild [10] Pantherophis Crotalus adamanteus, eastern diamond-backed rattlesnake not specified [8] Crotalus horridus, timber rattlesnake wild [9,22]; this study Sistrurus catenatus, massasauga wild [6] Sistrurus miliarius barbouri, dusky pygmy rattlesnake wild this study a Captured from wild; may have developed SFD in captivity.…”

Section: Distribution and Host Rangementioning

confidence: 99%

“…Severe cases of SFD frequently result in mortality [6,[14][15][16]21]. The mechanism(s) by which death occurs is probably multifactorial.…”

Section: Pathogenesismentioning

confidence: 99%

See 4 more Smart Citations

Snake fungal disease: an emerging threat to wild snakes

Lorch

Knowles

Lankton

et al. 2016

Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B

190

241

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Since 2006, there has been a marked increase in the number of reports of severe and often fatal fungal skin infections in wild snakes in the eastern USA. The emerging condition, referred to as snake fungal disease (SFD), was initially documented in rattlesnakes, where the infections were believed to pose a risk to the viability of affected populations. The disease is caused by Ophidiomyces ophiodiicola , a fungus recently split from a complex of fungi long referred to as the Chrysosporium anamorph of Nannizziopsis vriesii (CANV). Here we review the current state of knowledge about O. ophiodiicola and SFD. In addition, we provide original findings which demonstrate that O. ophiodiicola is widely distributed in eastern North America, has a broad host range, is the predominant cause of fungal skin infections in wild snakes and often causes mild infections in snakes emerging from hibernation. This new information, together with what is already available in the scientific literature, advances our knowledge of the cause, pathogenesis and ecology of SFD. However, additional research is necessary to elucidate the factors driving the emergence of this disease and develop strategies to mitigate its impacts. This article is part of the themed issue ‘Tackling emerging fungal threats to animal health, food security and ecosystem resilience’.

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Section: Pathogenesismentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Causative Agentmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Section: Distribution and Host Rangementioning

confidence: 99%

“…Severe cases of SFD frequently result in mortality [6,[14][15][16]21]. The mechanism(s) by which death occurs is probably multifactorial.…”

Section: Pathogenesismentioning

confidence: 99%

See 3 more Smart Citations

Snake fungal disease: an emerging threat to wild snakes

Lorch

Knowles

Lankton

et al. 2016

Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B

190

241

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A pesticide paradox: fungicides indirectly increase fungal infections

Rohr

Brown

Battaglin

et al. 2017

Ecological Applications

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There are many examples where the use of chemicals have had profound unintended consequences, such as fertilizers reducing crop yields (paradox of enrichment) and insecticides increasing insect pests (by reducing natural biocontrol). Recently, the application of agrochemicals, such as agricultural disinfectants and fungicides, has been explored as an approach to curb the pathogenic fungus, Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis (Bd), which is associated with worldwide amphibian declines. However, the long-term, net effects of early-life exposure to these chemicals on amphibian disease risk have not been thoroughly investigated. Using a combination of laboratory experiments and analysis of data from the literature, we explored the effects of fungicide exposure on Bd infections in two frog species. Extremely low concentrations of the fungicides azoxystrobin, chlorothalonil, and mancozeb were directly toxic to Bd in culture. However, estimated environmental concentrations of the fungicides did not reduce Bd on Cuban tree frog (Osteopilus septentrionalis) tadpoles exposed simultaneously to any of these fungicides and Bd, and fungicide exposure actually increased Bd-induced mortality. Additionally, exposure to any of these fungicides as tadpoles resulted in higher Bd abundance and greater Bd-induced mortality when challenged with Bd post-metamorphosis, an average of 71 days after their last fungicide exposure. Analysis of data from the literature revealed that previous exposure to the fungicide itraconazole, which is commonly used to clear Bd infections, made the critically endangered booroolong frog (Litoria booroolongensis) more susceptible to Bd. Finally, a field survey revealed that Bd prevalence was positively associated with concentrations of fungicides in ponds. Although fungicides show promise for controlling Bd, these results suggest that, if fungicides do not completely eliminate Bd or if Bd re-colonizes, exposure to fungicides has the potential to do more harm than good. To ensure that fungicide applications have the intended consequence of curbing amphibian declines, researchers must identify which fungicides do not compromise the pathogen resistance mechanisms of amphibians.

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Leveraging preserved specimens of Nerodia to infer the spatiotemporal dynamics of Ophidiomyces ophidiicola via quantitative polymerase chain reaction

Harding

Moretta‐Urdiales

Nordmeyer

et al. 2023

Ecology and Evolution

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Ophidiomyces ophidiicola (Oo) is a fungal pathogen and the causative agent of ophidiomycosis that has affected multiple snake taxa across the United States, Europe, and Asia. Ophidiomycosis has often been referred to as an emerging infectious disease (EID); however, its status as an EID has recently come under debate. Oo infections have been confirmed in wild snake populations in Texas; however, it is unknown if the pathogen is novel (i.e., invasive) or endemic to the state. To address this knowledge gap, we conducted surveys for Oo among preserved Nerodia deposited at three university museums in Texas. First, we visually assessed snakes for signs of infection (SOI), and if SOI were present, we sampled the affected area. We then used quantitative polymerase chain reaction to diagnose the presence of Oo DNA on areas with SOI and used these data to evaluate spatiotemporal patterns of Oo prevalence. We also tested for significant spatial clusters of Oo infenction using a Bernoulli probability model as implemented in the program SatScan. We found that the proportion of snakes exhibiting SOI was constant over time while the prevalence of Oo DNA among those SOI increased across space and time. Within these data, we detected an incidence pattern consistent with an introduction and then spread. We detected six spatial clusters of Oo infection, although only one was significant. Our results support the hypothesis that Oo is an emerging, novel pathogen to Texas snakes. These data narrow the knowledge gap regarding the history of Oo infections in Texas and establish a historical record of confirmed Oo detections in several counties across the state. Thus, our results will guide future research to those areas with evidence of past Oo infections but lacking confirmation in contemporary hosts.

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Chrysosporiumsp. Infection in Eastern Massasauga Rattlesnakes

Cited by 124 publications

References 10 publications

Snake fungal disease: an emerging threat to wild snakes

Snake fungal disease: an emerging threat to wild snakes

A pesticide paradox: fungicides indirectly increase fungal infections

Leveraging preserved specimens of Nerodia to infer the spatiotemporal dynamics of Ophidiomyces ophidiicola via quantitative polymerase chain reaction

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