“…The X-ray diffraction patters of our previous study also indicated that the addition of CNCs will induce a combination of crystalline and amorphous regions in the nanocelulose reinforced chitosan hydrogel. Several studies have also demonstrated that a small amount of CNC could lead to a remarkable decrease in the degradation rate of the composite matrix [ 72 , 73 ]. According to the results, 2.5% CNC–chitosan showed 69% weight loss as it contained high amount of CNCs, while chitosan hydrogel lost its 84% weight because it does not contain CNCs.…”
A unique biodegradable, superporous, swellable and pH sensitive nanocellulose reinforced chitosan hydrogel with dynamic mechanical properties was prepared for oral administration of curcumin. Curcumin, a less water-soluble drug was used due to the fact that the fast swellable, superporous hydrogel could release a water-insoluble drug to a great extent. CO 2 gas foaming was used to fabricate hydrogel as it eradicates using organic solvents. Field emission scanning electron microscope images revealed that the pore size significantly increased with the formation of widely interconnected porous structure in gas foamed hydrogels. The maximum compression of pure chitosan hydrogel was 25.9 ± 1 kPa and it increased to 38.4 ± 1 kPa with the introduction of 0.5% cellulose nanocrystals. In vitro degradation of hydrogels was found dependent on the swelling ratio and the amount of CNC of the hydrogel. All the hydrogels showed maximum swelling ratios greater than 300%. The 0.5% CNC-chitosan hydrogel showed the highest swelling ratio of 438% ± 11%. FTIR spectrum indicated that there is no interaction between drug and ingredients present in hydrogels. The drug release occurred in non-Fickian (anomalous) manner in simulated gastric medium. The drug release profiles of hydrogels are consistent with the data obtained from the swelling studies. After gas foaming of the hydrogel, the drug loading efficiency increased from 41% ± 2.4% to 50% ± 2.0% and release increased from 0.74 to 1.06 mg/L. The drug release data showed good fitting to Ritger-Peppas model. Moreover, the results revealed that the drug maintained its chemical activity after in vitro release. According to the results of this study, CNC reinforced chitosan hydrogel can be suggested to improve the bioavailability of curcumin for the absorption from stomach and upper intestinal tract.
“…The X-ray diffraction patters of our previous study also indicated that the addition of CNCs will induce a combination of crystalline and amorphous regions in the nanocelulose reinforced chitosan hydrogel. Several studies have also demonstrated that a small amount of CNC could lead to a remarkable decrease in the degradation rate of the composite matrix [ 72 , 73 ]. According to the results, 2.5% CNC–chitosan showed 69% weight loss as it contained high amount of CNCs, while chitosan hydrogel lost its 84% weight because it does not contain CNCs.…”
A unique biodegradable, superporous, swellable and pH sensitive nanocellulose reinforced chitosan hydrogel with dynamic mechanical properties was prepared for oral administration of curcumin. Curcumin, a less water-soluble drug was used due to the fact that the fast swellable, superporous hydrogel could release a water-insoluble drug to a great extent. CO 2 gas foaming was used to fabricate hydrogel as it eradicates using organic solvents. Field emission scanning electron microscope images revealed that the pore size significantly increased with the formation of widely interconnected porous structure in gas foamed hydrogels. The maximum compression of pure chitosan hydrogel was 25.9 ± 1 kPa and it increased to 38.4 ± 1 kPa with the introduction of 0.5% cellulose nanocrystals. In vitro degradation of hydrogels was found dependent on the swelling ratio and the amount of CNC of the hydrogel. All the hydrogels showed maximum swelling ratios greater than 300%. The 0.5% CNC-chitosan hydrogel showed the highest swelling ratio of 438% ± 11%. FTIR spectrum indicated that there is no interaction between drug and ingredients present in hydrogels. The drug release occurred in non-Fickian (anomalous) manner in simulated gastric medium. The drug release profiles of hydrogels are consistent with the data obtained from the swelling studies. After gas foaming of the hydrogel, the drug loading efficiency increased from 41% ± 2.4% to 50% ± 2.0% and release increased from 0.74 to 1.06 mg/L. The drug release data showed good fitting to Ritger-Peppas model. Moreover, the results revealed that the drug maintained its chemical activity after in vitro release. According to the results of this study, CNC reinforced chitosan hydrogel can be suggested to improve the bioavailability of curcumin for the absorption from stomach and upper intestinal tract.
“…[42] Moreover, the intensity of this peak varies according to the types of chemical used to treat the nanocellulose which is likely related to the reactivity of the chemical used toward the nanocellulose. [42,43] Figure 4(A-C) show the proposed chemical reaction between the nanocellulose and the acetic acid, formic acid and 2-ethylhexyl acrylate, respectively.…”
Palm oil plantations are very important in that they supply vegetable oil globally. However, increased production of palm oil prompts the accumulation of large lignocelluloses residues in the form of oil palm empty fruit bunch (OPEFB). This study explored the advantages of using OPEFB in the production of all-cellulose composite (ACC) films. The isolation process of the raw OPEFB fiber was carried out using a chemical process to extract OPEFB nanocellulose. ACC films from OPEFB and microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) were prepared using a dimethylacetamide (DMAC) and lithium chloride solvent system whereby the partially dissolved cellulose was transformed into the matrix phase surrounding the remaining nondissolved fiber. ACC films with 1% (wt/vol) OPEFB and 3% (wt/vol) MCC were prepared and the effects of chemical treatment of the OPEFB cellulose on the mechanical properties, crystalline structure, morphology, moisture absorption and soil biodegradability of the ACC film were investigated. The tensile strength of the ACC film was tremendously improved by chemical treatment. For instance, when acetic acid was used to treat the nanocellulose, the resultant film showed 279% increment in tensile strength value. However, formic acid-treated films demonstrate greater moisture uptake and soil biodegradation rate. The findings could be related to the alterations of hydroxyl group composition in the nanocellulose and variation in dissolution rate of the nanocellulose during chemical treatment. K E Y W O R D S all-cellulose composite, biodegradability, ionic liquid, nanocellulose, oil palm empty fruit bunch 1 | INTRODUCTION Plastic film is the most commonly used material for packaging due to its aesthetic quality, low cost, handleability, flexibility, and lightweight. Plastic films used for domestic and food packaging are typically made from petroleum sources like polypropylene (PP), polystyrene (PS), and polyethylene (PE). Use of these materials has led to severe environmental issues. A way to reduce packaging environmental issues is by introducing natural ingredients into
“…The stretching vibration of the C-O bond of the acetyl group at 1050 cm −1 and the stretching vibration of the methyl (C=O)-CH 3 groups confirmed the formation of acetylated groups in the modified cellulose nanocrystals. 27 Figure 2.Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy of pristine and modified cellulose nanocrystals.…”
This study is aimed to investigate the effect of the simultaneous incorporation of cellulose nanocrystals (CNC) and silver nanoparticles (SN) on the mechanical, biodegradability, and water vapor permeability of polylactic acid (PLA)-based films. PLA films and their nanocomposites containing different levels of CNC (0.333, 1 and 1.667 phr) and SN (0.333 phr) were prepared by solution casting method. CNC was reacted with acetic anhydride to improve its compatibility and miscibility with PLA. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy, thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), tensile test, and water vapor permeability and antibacterial tests were employed to characterize the samples. The biodegradability was assessed by measuring the weight loss upon burial in the soil. FTIR spectroscopy confirmed the modification of cellulose nanocrystals. TGA test showed that partial acetylation slightly improved the thermal stability of CNC. The presence of cellulose nanocrystals increased the tensile strength and modulus of elasticity of the nanocomposite relative to pure polylactic acid. The biodegradability and water vapor permeability of the samples decreased upon CNC incorporation. The antibacterial properties of the films showed the higher resistance of the gram-positive bacteria as their cell walls include a peptidoglycan layer.
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