Human Papillomavirus, Cervical Cancer, and the Vaccines

Abstract

How are human papillomavirus (HPV), cervical cancer, and the recently developed HPV vaccines associated with each other? Human papillomavirus is a highly prevalent infection that is easily and unknowingly transmitted because of its asymptomatic nature and long incubation period. Infection requires skin-to-skin contact and is typically sexually transmitted. More than one-half of sexually active women acquire HPV, making it the most prevalent sexually transmitted disease. Cervical cancer ranks second in deaths from cancer among women in developing countries and kills nearly 4000 women in the United States annually. Several types of HPV have been strongly linked to causing cervical cancer and genital warts. Those causing cervical cancer are considered high-risk types and those causing genital warts are considered low-risk types. Until recently, prevention strategies included abstinence, condom usage, and early detection with a Papanicolaou test (Pap smear). New developments have led to 2 vaccines aimed at preventing the viral infection. One is a quadrivalent vaccine preventing infection from 4 HPV types (HPV types 6, 11, 16, and 18) (Gardasil). It is approved in the United States and Europe for the prevention of HPV-associated cervical cancers and genital warts in females between the ages of 9 and 26 years old. The second is a bivalent vaccine preventing infection from 2 high-risk oncogenic HPV types (HPV types 16 and 18) (Cervarix). It is currently under study and not yet available in the United States. Both vaccines have proven highly effective at preventing infection from their corresponding HPV types. Of importance, neither vaccine is to be used for treatment. Vaccination does not replace routine cervical cancer screening with Pap smears, as the vaccines do not protect against all HPV types.

Prevalence of human papillomavirus genotypes among women with cervical lesions in the Shaanxi Province of China

“…HPV infection is one of the confirmed pathogenic factors in cervical cancer (Tovar et al, 2008). HPV 16 and 18 can be found in most cervical cancers (Stanley et al, 2007) and more than 50% of cervical cancer patients are HPV 16 positive (Grce et al, 2010).…”

“…Genotype screening on a large scale could detect the prevalence of HPV genotypes (single or multiple genotype; high-risk, low-risk or both) in infected people who are asymptomatic (Tovar et al, 2008;Li et al, 2014) and the genotypes prevalent in women with cervical lesions. There are already several reports on this subject in China Muhanmode and Liu, 2010;Yang et al, 2010) but the numbers of enrolled participants were small.…”

Genital and oral human papillomavirus infection in a patient from the group of women who have sex with women

“…Both her lesions were confirmed by histological studies, unlike her partner, whose examination results were negative. This fact highlights the challenge faced for breaking the HPV transmission cycle, since the incubation period of this virus varies or may even be indeterminate, resulting in a long period of time between infection and presentation of clinical signs by patients 3. Patients with a history of lesbianism in a long, steady relationship may feel uneasy in reporting previous sexual partners, which makes it harder to obtain a reliable history.…”

Cervical Cancer : Is Vaccination Necessary in India?

“…While this technology is widely available and has reduced cervical cancer incidence in industrialized nations, it is not readily available in many third world countries like India in which cervical cancer incidence and mortality is high. Development of cervical cancer is associated with Seema Farhath 1 , PP Vijaya 2 *, P Mumtaj 2 infection with high risk types of human papillomavirus (HPV) creating a unique opportunity to prevent or treat cervical cancer through anti-viral vaccination strategies (Winer et al, 2006;Tovar et al, 2008).…”