Human monkeypox infection threat: A comprehensive overview

Abstract

Background In addition to the COVID-19 waves, the globe is recently facing global monkeypox (MPX) outbreak. As the daily confirmed cases of MPX infection across epidemic and nonepidemic countries are increasing, taking measures to control global pandemic remains crucial. Therefore, this review aimed to provide fundamental knowledge for the prevention and control of future outbreaks of this emerging epidemic. Methods The review was conducted using PubMed and Google Scholar databases; the search terms used were “monkeypox,” “MPX tropism,” “replication signaling of MPX,” “biology and pathogenicity of MPX,” “diagnosis of MPX,” “treatment of MPX,” “prevention of MPX,” etc. The update epidemic data were collected from the websites of the World Health Organization (WHO), United States Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), and Africa Center for Disease Control and Prevention (ADCC). High-quality research results published in authoritative journals were summarized and preferred cited. Excluding all duplicates, non-English published references, and irrelevant literature, totally 1,436 articles were assessed for eligibility. Results It is still difficult to diagnose the patient as MPX simply based on clinical manifestations; therefore, under this situation, employing polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technology to provide confirmed evidence for the diagnosis of MPX seems to be the preferred and indispensable strategy. The treatment approach for MPX infection is mainly symptomatic and supportive; anti-smallpox virus drugs including tecovirimat, cidofovir, and brincidofovir can be employed in severe cases. Timely identification and isolation of confirmed cases, cutting off dissemination routes, and vaccination of close contacts are effective measures to control MPX. Also, smallpox vaccines (JYNNEOS, LC16m8, and ACAM2000) can be under consideration due to their immunological cross-protection among Orthopoxvirus. Nevertheless, given the low quality and scarcity of relevant evidence of current antiviral drugs and vaccines, deeply seeking for the MAPK/ERK, PAK-1, PI3K/Akt signaling, and other pathways involved in MPX invasion may provide potential targets for the treatment, prevention, and control of the epidemic. Conclusions In response to the current MPX epidemic, the development of vaccines and antiviral drugs against MPX, as well as the rapid and precise diagnostic methods are still urgently needed. Sound monitoring and detection systems should be established to limit the rapid spread of MPX worldwide.

Monkeypox Virus Crosstalk with HIV: An Integrated Skin Transcriptome and Machine Learning Study

“…The immunomodulatory ERK signaling plays a key role in the regulation of cytokines (IL-2, IL-10, and TNF-a) and biomarkers (PD-1 and Fas/FasL) that are skewed in chronic HIV infection . Notably, ERK is also involved in the invasion and transmission of MPXV, providing a potential avenue for the treatment of the epidemic . The NF-κB signaling pathway has long been recognized as a valuable target for HIV infection .…”

“… 28 Notably, ERK is also involved in the invasion and transmission of MPXV, providing a potential avenue for the treatment of the epidemic. 29 The NF-κB signaling pathway has long been recognized as a valuable target for HIV infection. 30 Recently, a plethora of individual compounds have been screened to activate HIV transcription via NF-kB signaling in vitro and ex vivo, providing a promising path forward for the development of alternative drug targets for HIV.…”

Complicaciones neurológicas en pacientes infectados con viruela del simio: Una revisión bibliográfica

“…Faltan datos suficientes sobre la eficacia de VIGIV en el tratamiento de la infección por viruela símica en humanos. Se puede considerar VIGIV para uso profiláctico en una persona expuesta con inmunodeficiencia grave (25,34). Cefalea, náuseas, escalofríos y mareos son las reacciones adversas más comunes.…”

Monkeypox virus (MPXV): A Brief account of global spread, epidemiology, virology, clinical features, pathogenesis, and therapeutic interventions

“…Unnoticed cases can only be found by wastewater-based surveillance, which is also important for keeping tabs on problems and alerting relevant parties so that postexposure prophylaxis can be administered [14] . The detection of MPXV at an early stage may be facilitated by monitoring MPXV nucleic acids in sewer water and on surfaces [ 69 ]. Testing must be widely available, especially in low and middle-income countries, and a universally recognized case definition for MPX is required.…”