Human monkeypox: epidemiology, transmission, pathogenesis, immunology, diagnosis and therapeutics

Abstract

“Zoonoses” describe diseases that may be acquired by humans from animals. Due to the constant contact between humans and other animals, many infectious diseases are disseminated. This may happen via direct contact, such as bites or scratches, or by indirect contact, such as when eating bush meat or using contaminated animal parts. Monkeypox disease is one such zoonotic infection which is now emerging as a disease of global concern, and the World Health Organization has already labelled it a public health emergency. The virus is related to other orthopox viruses and may be further classified into two genetically separate clades, the West African and the Central African. The latter is far more pathogenic than the former. Utilizing virotransducer and virostealth proteins, the virus is able to control the host’s T-cell-mediated responses and impede the release of cytokines and chemokines.Monkeypox may be treated with tecovirimat, cidofovir, or brincidofovir, and prevention with the vaccination JYNNEOS is recommended. The disease’s fast global expansion warrants concern despite the fact that it is less fatal than that caused by the variola virus. Before the sickness reaches catastrophic proportions, we must draw on our prior experiences and act prudently. This article serves as an introduction to the monkeypox virus and its associated pathology, treatments, diagnostics, and preventative measures.

Human Monkeypox Experience in a Tertiary Level Hospital in Milan, Italy, between May and October 2022: Epidemiological Features and Clinical Characteristics

“…Then, the lesion starts to develop into a pustule containing a mixed inflammatory infiltrate of lymphocytes, eosinophils and neutrophils with apoptotic debris and few viable keratinocytes. Finally, the pustule becomes desiccated and forms a crust [ 28 , 29 ].…”

“…Mpxv infection stimulates the adaptative immune response, involving activated effector CD4+ and CD8+ T-cells, neutralizing antibodies (IgM, IgA and IgG), and the production of Th1-inflammatory cytokines (interferon gamma (IFN-γ), interleukin [IL]-1ra, IL-6, IL-8, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)). This immune response contains viral replication and induces immunity in recovering patients [ 27 , 28 , 29 ].…”

Clinicopathological and molecular approaches to the diagnosis of oral lesions in Mpox: Case report

“…11,16 The confirmation of the MPXV infection was achieved through RT-PCR from a skin lesion sample, which is considered the gold standard for the diagnosis of MPXV infection. 17 Additionally, electron microscopy analysis provided further insights into the ultrastructural characteristics of MPXV infection, contributing to our understanding of the pathological oral changes induced by MPXV.…”

VP37 Protein Inhibitors for Mpox Treatment: Highlights on Recent Advances, Patent Literature, and Future Directions

“…This is because smallpox has humans as the only host, while Mpox has humans and many animals as hosts, making it difficult to eradicate. The mode of transmission, symptoms, diagnosis, and complications of Mpox is depicted in Figure 1 [ 4 , 5 , 6 , 7 , 8 ].…”