Human gnathostomiasis: a neglected food-borne zoonosis

Abstract

Background Human gnathostomiasis is a food-borne zoonosis. Its etiological agents are the third-stage larvae of Gnathostoma spp. Human gnathostomiasis is often reported in developing countries, but it is also an emerging disease in developed countries in non-endemic areas. The recent surge in cases of human gnathostomiasis is mainly due to the increasing consumption of raw freshwater fish, amphibians, and reptiles. Methods This article reviews the literature on Gnathostoma spp. and the disease that these parasites cause in humans. We review the literature on the life cycle and pathogenesis of these parasites, the clinical features, epidemiology, diagnosis, treatment, control, and new molecular findings on human gnathostomiasis, and social-ecological factors related to the transmission of this disease. Conclusions The information presented provides an impetus for studying the parasite biology and host immunity. It is urgently needed to develop a quick and sensitive diagnosis and to develop an effective regimen for the management and control of human gnathostomiasis.

Development of Immunochromatographic Test Kit for Rapid Detection of Specific IgG4 Antibody in Whole-Blood Samples for Diagnosis of Human Gnathostomiasis

“…Gnathostomiasis occurs predominantly in Asia and the Americas, and in travelers returning from endemic countries. The infection is mainly acquired by ingestion of raw or undercooked freshwater fish, amphibians, reptiles, birds and mammals, all of which are known to harbor advanced third-stage larvae of Gnathostoma species [ 1 , 2 , 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ]. Gnathostomiasis patients usually present with intermittent cutaneous migratory swellings and creeping eruption.…”

“…Definitive diagnosis of gnathostomiasis can be made by recovery of the migrating larvae from the human body, but this direct detection is extremely difficult. Therefore, in practice diagnosis of gnathostomiasis is based on clinical features, peripheral blood eosinophilia, history of ingesting undercooked parasite-contaminated foods and of living in or traveling to endemic regions, and serological tests [ 3 , 4 , 5 , 6 ]. Antibody-detection methods reported for serodiagnosis of human gnathostomiasis include enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays (ELISA) [ 11 , 12 , 13 , 14 ] and immunoblot assays [ 15 , 16 , 17 , 18 ] using native Gnathostoma spinigerum antigens.…”

Morphological and Phylogenetic Analysis of Eustrongylides sp. and Gnathostoma spinigerum Parasitizing the Asian Swamp Eel Monopterusalbus in China

“…including E. tubifex, E. ignotus, and E. excisus, which are found in several species of fish and oligochaetes and the intestine of water birds. [13][14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22][23][24]. Digestive disorders and intestinal perforation can occur in humans due to the accidental ingestion of third-or fourth-stage Eustrongylides spp.…”

Detection of Gnathostoma spinigerum Advanced 3rd-Stage Larvae in the Chinese Edible Frog, Hoplobatrachus rugulosus, from Local Markets in Phnom Penh, Cambodia

“…Human gnathostomiasis is caused by infection with larval gnathostomes, which is characterized clinically by creeping eruption in subcutaneous and intermuscular tissues due to migrating larvae [1]. It is also known that Gnathostoma larvae occasionally invade the visceral organs, including the liver, lungs, eyes, and even the brain [1,2].Human gnathostomiasis is known to be prevalent in Southeast Asia, including Thailand, Lao PDR, and Myanmar, but this nematode infection is very rare in Cambodia [3][4][5][6][7][8][9][10][11]. Only 1 case of ocular gnathostomiasis was reported in Cambodia [12].…”

“…Human gnathostomiasis is caused by infection with larval gnathostomes, which is characterized clinically by creeping eruption in subcutaneous and intermuscular tissues due to migrating larvae [ 1 ]. It is also known that Gnathostoma larvae occasionally invade the visceral organs, including the liver, lungs, eyes, and even the brain [ 1 , 2 ].…”