Human Geography and the “New Ecology”: The Prospect and Promise of Integration

Abstract

Biogeography is, in essence, the geography of nature or more specifically, the study of the distribution of Earth's life forms at all spatial and temporal scales. This paper traces the historical development of biogeography from ancient times to the twenty-first century, highlights contemporary trends and expansions, and previews future prospects. The cumulative discovery of biogeographic patterns culminated in the development of the theory of evolution -biogeography's greatest contribution to science. The paradigm shift to causal approaches in the early twentieth century led to ecological biogeography emerging as the second pillar of biogeography in addition to historical biogeography. Fostered by the acceptance of plate tectonics, the equilibrium theory of island biogeography, the rapid advancement of new perspectives and methods in historical biogeography, and revolutionary advances in compiling, visualizing, and analyzing spatially explicit information, biogeography evolved into a rigorous science during the second half of the twentieth century. Currently, major active sub-fields are phylogeography, macroecology, and conservation biogeography. Biogeography is on the way to becoming a 'big science', entering an era of increasingly integrative and multi-faceted approaches, increasingly accessible and available data, tools, and techniques, and interdisciplinary collaboration.

12. The Lake Titicaca Basin: A Precolumbian Built Landscape

“…These people, and their descendants, the Aymara and Quechua, are what Netting (1993) describes as ''smallholders,'' farmers who practice small-scale intensive agriculture, making physical improvements to their lands, which are inherited by their descendants. The built environment represents the landscape capital of hundreds of generations of farmers and herders and reflects a rich indigenous knowledge system (Erickson 1993(Erickson , 1996Morlon 1996;Denevan 2000;Zimmerer 1996).…”

“…The human-centric perspective incorporates elements of historical ecology (Crumley 1994; Balée and Posey 1989;Kirch and Hunt 1997), the archaeology of landscapes (Yarmin and Metheny 1996;Tilley 1994;Erickson n.d.), the new ecology (Botkin 1990;Stahl 1996;Zimmerer 1994), and historical geography (Denevan 1992(Denevan , 2000Siemens 1998;Zimmerer 1996). This perspective emphasizes the cultural, anthropogenic, or built environment, in this case human modification, transformation, and creation of the landscapes over the long term.…”

“…The perspective considers human land use at multiple spatial and geographic scales (Crumley 1994). The approach also assumes that environments are dynamic and have complex, and often chaotic, histories (Botkin 1990;Zimmerer 1994;Stahl 1996).…”

“…The cycles of instability and fluctuation interpreted from the cores are compared to these norms (Binford et al 1997;Abbott et al 1997;Binford and Kolata 1996). An alternative perspective is provided in the new ecology (Botkin 1990;Zimmerer 1994) and historical ecology (Crumley 1994), which considers the environment to be dynamic. Change, at times chaotic, is natural and expected.…”

“…According to Mayer (1985), production zones provide the structure or rules for the allotment of irrigation water, distribution of communal and individual land, regulation of land use, the scheduling of agricultural activities, definition of crop types, and the cycle of rotational fallow. Another strategy was the development and maintenance of high biodiversity in crops suited for a wide range of environments and culinary purposes (Zimmerer 1996). Prime examples are the land races of bitter potatoes (Solanum juzepczukii) and cañ ihua (Chenopodium pallidicaule) cultivated in the cold puna up to 4,450 m (Winterhalder and Thomas 1978 : 57).…”