Human facial muscles: Dimensions, motor endplate distribution, and presence of muscle fibers with multiple motor endplates

Happak, Wolfgang; Liu, Ji; Burggasser, Georg; Flowers, Amanda; Gruber, Helmut; Freilinger, G

doi:10.1002/(sici)1097-0185(199710)249:2<276::aid-ar15>3.0.co;2-l

Cited by 99 publications

(69 citation statements)

References 33 publications

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“…8 An increased number of sodium channels in facial muscles compared with other skeletal muscles may explain the findings associated with SCN4A mutations. 8,17,18 Consistent with our analysis, the only other genetic study performed on patients with strabismus in addition to myotonia also found the V445M mutation. 19 There may be an association between this mutation and extraocular muscles.…”

Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 90%

Myotonia congenita with strabismus in a large family with a mutation in the SCN4A gene

Grob

Zhao

et al. 2012

Eye

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Background/Aims To determine the genetic basis of myotonia congenita (MC) and strabismus in a large Caucasian family. Methods Seven patients making up four generations of a family with MC and strabismus were recruited. All patients had at least one standard ophthalmic examination, including best-corrected visual acuity, refraction, and ocular motility measurements. CLCN1 and SCN4A genes were sequenced and analysed for mutations. Results Five out of the seven family members were diagnosed with MC by clinical history and electromyography. Ophthalmic history and exam revealed eyelid myotonia and strabismus. All patients with MC were diagnosed with strabismus between the ages of 3 and 6 and required surgical restoration of ocular alignment. Sequencing results revealed a c. 1333G4A; p. Val445Met mutation in the SCN4A gene. Conclusion There are few reports describing eyelid myotonia and strabismus in patients diagnosed with MC. We found significant ocular involvement in a family with a mutation in SCN4A. Future studies may confirm that MC with significant ocular involvement can be used to direct genetic analysis.

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Section: Discussionsupporting

confidence: 90%

Myotonia congenita with strabismus in a large family with a mutation in the SCN4A gene

Grob

Zhao

et al. 2012

Eye

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“…Each facial muscle is made up out of 75-150 muscle fibres (Rubin, 1999). They are arranged into parallel bundles, which run from origin to insertion (Happak et al, 1997).…”

Section: Facial Muscle Characteristicsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Current opportunities and challenges in skeletal muscle tissue engineering

Koning¹,

Harmsen²,

Luyn³

et al. 2009

J Tissue Eng Regen Med

144

108

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The purpose of this article is to give a concise review of the current state of the art in tissue engineering (TE) of skeletal muscle and the opportunities and challenges for future clinical applicability. The endogenous progenitor cells of skeletal muscle, i.e. satellite cells, show a high proneness to muscular differentiation, in particular exhibiting the same characteristics and function as its donor muscle. This suggests that it is important to use an appropriate progenitor cell, especially in TE facial muscles, which have a exceptional anatomical and fibre composition compared to other skeletal muscle. Muscle TE requires an instructive scaffold for structural support and to regulate the proliferation and differentiation of muscle progenitor cells. Current literature suggests that optimal scaffolding could comprise of a fibrin gel and cultured monolayers of muscle satellite cells obtained through the cell sheet technique. Tissue-engineered muscle constructs require an adequate connection to the vascular system for efficient transport of oxygen, carbon dioxide, nutrients and waste products. Finally, functional and clinically applicable muscle constructs depend on adequate neuromuscular junctions with neural cells. To reach this, it seems important to apply optimal electrical, chemotropic and mechanical stimulation during engineering and discover other factors that influence its formation. Thus, in addition to approaches for myogenesis, we discuss the current status of strategies for angiogenesis and neurogenesis of TE muscle constructs and the significance for future clinical use.

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“…The human face contains 23 paired facial muscles and 1 unpaired, the orbicularis oris, which are all unique from other skeletal muscles in that they attach at least one side to the skin, making facial expression possible through this skin movement [38]. Each facial muscle consists of 75-150 muscle fibers [39] arranged in parallel bundles running from origin to insertion [40] and allowing for Type I (slow twitch) and Type II (fast twitch) muscle fibers to be distinguished as well [41]. Slow twitch muscle fibers are able to work for a long time without getting exhausted due to their ability to produce large amounts of energy at a slow pace.…”

Section: Facial Muscle Characteristicsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Cartilage and facial muscle tissue engineering and regeneration: a mini review

et al. 2018

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Cartilage and facial muscle tissue provide basic yet vital functions for homeostasis throughout the body, making human survival and function highly dependent upon these somatic components. When cartilage and facial muscle tissues are harmed or completely destroyed due to disease, trauma, or any other degenerative process, homeostasis and basic body functions consequently become negatively affected. Although most cartilage and cells can regenerate themselves after any form of the aforementioned degenerative disease or trauma, the highly specific characteristics of facial muscles and the specific structures of the cells and tissues required for the proper function cannot be exactly replicated by the body itself. Thus, some form of cartilage and bone tissue engineering is necessary for proper regeneration and function. The use of progenitor cells for this purpose would be very beneficial due to their highly adaptable capabilities, as well as their ability to utilize a high diffusion rate, making them ideal for the specific nature and functions of cartilage and facial muscle tissue. Going along with this, once the progenitor cells are obtained, applying them to a scaffold within the oral cavity in the affected location allows them to adapt to the environment and create cartilage or facial muscle tissue that is specific to the form and function of the area. The principal function of the cartilage and tissue is vascularization, which requires a specific form that allows them to aid the proper flow of bodily functions related to the oral cavity such as oxygen flow and removal of waste. Facial muscle is also very thin, making its reproduction much more possible. Taking all these into consideration, this review aims to highlight and expand upon the primary benefits of the cartilage and facial muscle tissue engineering and regeneration, focusing on how these processes are performed outside of and within the body.

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Human facial muscles: Dimensions, motor endplate distribution, and presence of muscle fibers with multiple motor endplates

Cited by 99 publications

References 33 publications

Myotonia congenita with strabismus in a large family with a mutation in the SCN4A gene

Myotonia congenita with strabismus in a large family with a mutation in the SCN4A gene

Current opportunities and challenges in skeletal muscle tissue engineering

Cartilage and facial muscle tissue engineering and regeneration: a mini review

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