Human–Elephant Conflict in Sri Lanka: A Critical Review of Causal Explanations

Abstract

Human–elephant conflict (HEC) is a severe and much-debated issue in Sri Lanka. An average of two hundred animals are intentionally killed, and seventy to eighty human casualties are counted each year. The Sri Lankan elephant (Elephas maximus maximus) is an endangered subspecies. The reported elephant mortality rates are high. On the other hand, human–elephant conflict also leads to hardship and trauma among rural populations. This research paper reviews causal explanations for HEC in Sri Lanka, tracing underlying narratives and connecting broader conservation theory and practical approaches. The paper discusses potential causes and contexts of HEC in Sri Lanka, including historical factors (i.e., colonial hunting and land-use changes), poaching, habitat loss due to population growth, crop-raiding behaviour, problem animals, and changes in agricultural production systems. The review concludes that socio-economic and cultural factors in HEC in Sri Lanka are poorly explained, and more research should focus on the underlying conditions of rural populations’ vulnerability.

Human Elephant Conflict (HEC): a Contemporary Threat to Rural Livelihoods in Sri Lanka

“…Therefore, crop raiding on agricultural fields to satisfy food requirements in the most prevalent form of HEC over the many regions in the world (Williams et al, 2001;Graham et al, 2010;Goswami et al, 2015;Liu et al, 2016). Elephants appear to scavenge in the forest during the day and in farmlands at evenings (Köpke et al, 2021). Once the crops are mature and ready for harvesting, wild elephants prefer to ingest paddy.…”

“…Both Asian and African elephants have been observed to favor banana plants as a source of food (Sukumar, 1990; Barnes et al, 2005). Correspondingly, wild elephants ruin the majority of agricultural croplands in their range regions if they are not appropriately managed (Köpke et al, 2021).…”

Exploring Routes to Coexistence: Developing and Testing a Human–Elephant Conflict-Management Framework for African Elephant-Range Countries

“…As HEC is actually a conflict between people about the management of elephants and the use resources, the political economy and social dimensions need to be taken more into the focus of HEC analysis and management to move towards coexistence between elephants and people [42,43]. The great challenge conservation institutions face when targeting HEC management is the high complexity and dynamics within the socio-ecologic systems involved [44][45][46][47].…”

Current and Future Approaches to Mitigate Conflict between Humans and Asian Elephants: The Potential Use of Aversive Geofencing Devices

“…There is also a captive Asian elephant population of approximately 14,930 to 15,130 in range countries [ 3 ] and another ~1000 maintained in zoos outside range countries [ 4 ]. Asian elephants (hereafter elephants) are worshiped as a god in Hinduism and have an important role in Buddhism, two of the main religions in the region [ 5 , 6 , 7 ]. Ancient kings maintained thousands of elephants as work animals and warriors; they also traded and gifted them between countries [ 1 , 6 , 8 , 9 , 10 ].…”