Human avoidance and approach learning: Evidence for overlapping neural systems and experiential avoidance modulation of avoidance neurocircuitry

Avoidance of harm and anxiety: A role for the nucleus accumbens

“…Therefore, future work needs to directly compare the effect of different delay intervals on avoidance behavior, and how that may be expressed at the neuronal level. We predict that longer delays between the CS and US will be reflected in greater recruitment of the hippocampus during avoidance behavior, as supported by studies in both rodents and humans that show greater engagement of the hippocampal system with longer delays between the CS and US during fear conditioning (e.g., Cheng et al, 2008;Chowdhury et al, 2005) and avoidance behavior (Schlund et al, 2011).…”

“…However, no study to date has explicitly tested whether the NAcc is also engaged when humans are required to withhold a specific response to avoid punishment (passive avoidance). Furthermore, the role of the NAcc in human avoidance behavior has not always been supported by functional brain imaging, as some studies using monetary loss paradigms have failed to find NAcc activation during active avoidance Schlund et al, , 2011, but see Niznikiewicz and Delgado, 2011).…”

“…In addition, we also tested whether individual anxiety levels would correlate with both task performance and the degree of NAcc engagement as measured by BOLD response. Given negative findings relating to NAcc activation to the warning stimulus in some active avoidance paradigms using secondary reinforcers such as monetary loss Schlund et al, , 2011, in this study we used a primary reinforcer (aversive images that produce disgust) due to the possibility that the inconsistent findings regarding secondary reinforcers may be due to such reinforcers not being deemed as aversive or punishing as primary reinforcers, as the participants know that there is a potential for a rewarding outcome in other trials (but see, Niznikiewicz and Delgado, 2011). Likewise it is also possible that avoidance behavior motivated by preventing reward loss may recruit distinct neural networks to those engaged during avoidance of an aversive/noxious stimulus, as demonstrated during classical aversive conditioning , or that the affective value of money may vary significantly between individuals to a much greater extent than a primary reinforcer would, thus explaining the inconsistent results when such reinforcers are used.…”

A general approach-avoidance hypothesis of Oxytocin: Accounting for social and non-social effects of oxytocin

“…Accordingly, because OT affects the cortico-amygdala fear/threat circuitry, it should also be expected to influence social and non-social avoidance behaviors (Petrovic et al, 2008;Condes-Lara et al, 1994;Dębiec, 2005;Gozzi et al, 2010;Huber et al, 2005;Kirsch et al, 2005;Knobloch et al, 2012;Lahoud and Maroun, 2013;Lee et al, 2007;Viviani et al, 2011). Through the influence on these distinct yet inter-connected brain systems (Cain and LeDoux, 2008;Schlund and Cataldo, 2010;Lane et al, 1997;Schlund et al, 2011;Rutherford and Lindell, 2011;Wrase et al, 2007), we theorize that OT influences approach and avoidance motivation and behavior. In the present paper, we thus question whether the theorized approach -avoidance function(s) of OT are indeed circumscribed to social contexts and processes specifically per extant theories of OT.…”

“…Although some of the activated regions during the social approach -avoidance tasks are considered important for social information processing and in particular human face processing (i.e., fusiform gyrus), many of the activated regions and circuitry reflect the basic (non-social) neural substrate of approach -avoidance. Indeed, activation in many of these specific regions overlaps with the regions active during the monetary approach -avoidance learning task (Schlund et al, 2011) and neural bases of approach -avoidance motivational system(s) (Harmon-Jones, 2011). Accordingly, the pattern of neural activation underlying putative social approach -avoidance is not distinct from the pattern of neural activation underlying more basic (and non-social) approach -avoidance motivational system(s).…”