How working memory capacity and shifting matter for learning with worked examples—A replication study.

Abstract

A previous study found that task shifting and fluid intelligence, but not working memory capacity (WMC) and prior knowledge, influenced the worked example effect (Schwaighofer, Bühner, & Fischer, 2016). To increase confidence in these findings, we report a preregistered extended replication study of Schwaighofer et al.’s investigation. University students (N = 231, Mage = 22.40 [SD = 4.33], 87% women) solved statistical problems with textbook materials presented on a laptop in one of four conditions in a 2 × 2 factorial between-subjects design. We compared worked examples versus problem-solving (replication) and with versus without time pressure (extension). Time pressure was added to test whether learners in the original study were able to offload WMC demands, which would explain why the WMC moderation was not found. Results showed that the advantage of worked examples over problem-solving decreased with increasing prior knowledge, suggesting that problem-solving becomes eventually more effective than worked example study. Similarly, the benefit of worked examples over problem-solving decreased with increasing shifting ability of a learner. However, contingencies on WMC or fluid intelligence were not detected. Our extension analysis indicated that the worked example effect was also not contingent on WMC even when learners were under time pressure. These findings underline the important role that task shifting might play in scaffolded learning environments and suggest that trading in the focus on WMC for a broader perspective on cognitive architecture provides novel explanations for instructional effectiveness. Our study further highlights the importance of more customized instructional support.

Learning to solve ill-defined statistics problems: does self-explanation quality mediate the worked example effect?

“…Worked examples were more beneficial than problemsolving for learners with lower shifting ability, but the benefit of worked examples over problem-solving decreased with higher shifting ability (Schwaighofer et al, 2016), an effect that was replicated (Bichler et al, 2020). In contrast, no evidence was found for WMC as moderator of the worked example effect (Bichler et al, 2020;Schwaighofer et al, 2016), favoring the cognitive load explanation that everyone's working memory capacity is limited when it comes to complex learning (Paas & Sweller, 2014). While Schwaighofer et al's (2016) and the replication of their study (Bichler et al, 2020) extended the investigation of factors that moderate the worked example effect to include prior knowledge and other cognitive functions relevant to learning, neither study analyzed learners' self-explanations or the mediating role of selfexplanation quality.…”

“…Shifting is a core cognitive function needed to regulate thought and behavior (Miyake & Friedman, 2012), as it allows us to flexibly switch between carrying out different tasks (Miyake et al, 2000). Worked examples were more beneficial than problemsolving for learners with lower shifting ability, but the benefit of worked examples over problem-solving decreased with higher shifting ability (Schwaighofer et al, 2016), an effect that was replicated (Bichler et al, 2020). In contrast, no evidence was found for WMC as moderator of the worked example effect (Bichler et al, 2020;Schwaighofer et al, 2016), favoring the cognitive load explanation that everyone's working memory capacity is limited when it comes to complex learning (Paas & Sweller, 2014).…”

“…Thus, even when self-explanation quality is included in the model, the direct effect of worked examples on learning gains is dependent on shifting ability and fluid intelligence, but not on WMC and prior knowledge. These moderation effects are discussed in detail in Schwaighofer et al (2016) and a replication of their study (Bichler et al, 2020).…”

What skills related to the control-of-variables strategy need to be taught, and who gains most? Differential effects of a training intervention.

“…Cognitive conflict can act as a cognitively activating instructional element that increases learners’ engagement (e.g., Limón, 2001). Demonstration experiments can function as worked examples that allow reducing learners’ cognitive load (Bichler et al, 2020) and focusing on explaining, discussing, and modeling (Grimm et al, 2023) the principles behind controlled and confounded experiments. In the second training session, we used worksheets containing confounded experimental designs, which has been shown to be effective in former CVS trainings (e.g., Lorch et al, 2014).…”

Assessing Complex Problem-Solving Skills in Under 20 Minutes

“…The study was part of their course requirements, and the data of the study served for practicing statistical analyses in the following course. After assessing cognitive ability, participants were assigned to conditions of an experiment investigating impacts of instructional design on learning outcomes (for a full description, see Bichler et al, 2020). Participants received either €55 (∼$60) or a certificate of participation in an empirical study after completing the study.…”