How to be patient. The ability to wait for a reward depends on menstrual cycle phase and feedback-related activity

Abstract

Dopamine (DA) plays a major role in reinforcement learning with increases promoting reward sensitivity (Go learning) while decreases facilitate the avoidance of negative outcomes (NoGo learning). This is also reflected in adaptations of response time: higher levels of DA enhance speeding up to get a reward, whereas lower levels favor slowing down. The steroid hormones estradiol and progesterone have been shown to modulate dopaminergic tone. Here, we tested 14 women twice during their menstrual cycle, during the follicular (FP) and the luteal phase (LP), applying functional magnetic resonance imaging while they performed a feedback learning task. Subsequent behavioral testing assessed response time preferences with a clock task, in which subjects had to explore the optimal response time (RT) to maximize reward. In the FP subjects displayed a greater learning-related change of their RT than during the LP, when they were required to slow down. Final RTs in the slow condition were also predicted by feedback-related brain activation, but only in the FP. Increased activation of the inferior frontal junction and rostral cingulate zone was thereby predictive of slower and thus better adapted final RTs. Conversely, final RT was faster and less optimal for reward maximization if activation in the ventromedial prefrontal cortex was enhanced. These findings show that hormonal shifts across the menstrual cycle affect adaptation of response speed during reward acquisition with higher RT adjustment in the FP in the condition that requires slowing down. Since high estradiol levels during the FP increase synaptic DA levels, this conforms well to our hypothesis that estradiol supports Go learning at the expense of NoGo learning. Brain-behavior correlations further indicated that the compensatory capacity to counteract the follicular Go bias may be linked to the ability to more effectively monitor action outcomes and suppress bottom-up reward desiring during feedback processing.

Go and NoGo: modulation of electrophysiological correlates by female sex steroid hormones

“…Frank et al (Frank et al 2004) and Reimers et al (Reimers et al 2014) proposed that progesterone evokes reduction of dopaminergic tone through an effect on estrogen receptors and GABA system activity. Increase and decrease of dopamine levels differently affects dopamine receptors D1 and D2: DA bursts facilitate the Go pathway by acting on D1 receptors, whereas drops in DA levels stimulate D2 receptor type which is implemented in the NoGo pathway.…”

Be quick about it. Endogenous estradiol level, menstrual cycle phase and trait impulsiveness predict impulsive choice in the context of reward acquisition

“…Variations in the steroid hormone 17ß-estradiol (E2) may promote intra-individual differences in reward seeking behavior and temporal decision-making (Reimers et al, 2014; Front. Neurosci.…”

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a b s t r a c t a r t i c l e i n f o Available online xxxx Keywords: Estrogen Progesterone Reward sensitivity Menstrual cycle Impulsivity Temporal discounting Response inhibitionVariations in the steroid hormone 17ß-estradiol (E2) may promote intra-individual differences in reward seeking behavior and temporal decision-making (Reimers et al, 2014; Front. Neurosci.

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Sex differences in inhibitory control in socially-housed baboons (Papio papio)

“…Similar conclusions were reached in a recent study in which women had to adapt their response speed to maximize reward. Indeed, compared to when in the luteal phase, women tested in the follicular phase were impaired in their ability to adapt to a slow response speed, suggesting that E2 facilitated Go learning (promoted reward sensitivity) at the expense of NoGo learning (avoidance of negative outcome; [55]). …”

“…Future studies should determine whether individual variation in testosterone levels in males predicts performance on the Stop-Signal task, with higher testosterone levels predicting both higher accuracy and slower RT and SSRT. Alternatively, it is also possible that estrogen also play a role, as estrogens have been shown to increase reward sensitivity in several paradigms in women [16,55,74]. Future studies precisely monitoring sex steroid levels in both sexes are needed to test these hypotheses.…”