How the self became a problem: A psychological review of historical research.

Abstract

In this article, historical evidence pertaining to self hood is reviewed. A scheme of stages is delineated, according to which the modern self and its uncertainties have evolved. The historical data are then reviewed in connection with the following four major problems regarding the self: knowing and conceptualizing the self; defining or creating the self; understanding one's potential and fulfilling it; and relating the single self to society.Modern psychology has shown considerable interest in understanding the self. Interest in problems ofselthood has spread from the clinicians to the humanistic psychologists and has even become a dominant feature of laboratory research. Indeed, if one surveys the extensive literatures on self-esteem (e.g., S. C. Jones, 1973) self-awareness (e.g., Carver & Scheier, 1981;Duval & Wicklund, 1972), selfpresentation (e.g., Baumeister, 1982, 1986 Schlenker, 1980), self-verification (Swann, 1985, self-schemas (e.g., Markus, 1977;Markus & Smith, 1981), self-handicapping (e.g., E. E. , self-concept (e.g., Epstein, 1973;Gergen, 1971), and self-monitoring (e.g., Snyder, 1974), it is difficult to escape the impression that the self must be ranked with dissonance and attributions as one of the fundamental issues that has concerned social and personality psychologists.The problematic nature of selfhood has concerned laypersons as well as professionals. Popular books and movies commonly recognize the need to "find oneself" and to "be oneself." Erikson (1968) observed that the rapid popularization of the term identity crisis, originally a term of psychological jargon, denoted that there was already widespread general interest in the phenomena it described. The individual quest for personal fulfillment (self-actualization) has become increasingly accepted by the general society as a legitimate and important aspect of life.It is plausible that the self simply has some ineffable fascination that has made it a perennial puzzle. One can read Kant and Descartes and even the ancient thinkers as if they were grappling with all these same issues of selfhood. A careful look at historical evidence suggests, however, that the concern with problems of selfhood is essentially a modern phenomenon. The medieval lords and serfs did not struggle with self-definition the way modern persons do.My thesis is that the self has become a problem in the course of historical development. The present article reviews historical discussions of developments that shed light on how that happened. I have organized this article according to an a priori scheme of four problems pertaining to the self. These problems include how identity is actively or creatively defined by the person, what is the nature of the relationship between the individual and society, how does the person understand his or her 190-tential and then fulfill it, and how and how well do persons know themselves.The general scheme of historical eras can be outlined (and named) as follows. The late medieval period, from about the 1 lth through the 15th century...

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“…Congruencia del objeto consumido con la identidad del consumidor Giddens, 1991;Fournier, 1998;Forehand y Deshpande, 2001;Grier y Deshpande, 2001;Forehand et al, 2002;Reed y Forehand, 2003;Edson y Bettman, 2005;Park, et al 2010;Lee, 2013. Influencia social en la identidad de los individuos y el consumo Diener, 1984;Deaux y Major, 1987;Tajfel y Turner, 1986;Markus y Kitayama, 1991;Banaji y Prentice, 1994;Walsh y Banaji, 1997;Steele, 1988;Tesser, 1988;Pelham y Swann, 1989;Andersen et al, 1997;Cleveland et al, 2013. La búsqueda de aprobación social y su influencia en el consumo Crowne y Marlowe, 1960, 1964Baumeister, 1982Baumeister, , 1987Leary y Kowalski, 1990;Lindbeck, 1997;Rege y Telle, 2004;Hoek et al, 2012. El apoyo social percibido y su influencia en el consumo Russell et al 1980;Shumaker y Brownell, 1984;Steinberg y Silverberg, 1986Wigfield y Eccles, 1992Sedikides y Skowronski, 1991;Higgins, 1990; North y Fiske, 2013. Elaboración propia.…”