How social exclusion makes radicalism flourish: A review of empirical evidence

Abstract

In recent years, researchers of various disciplines have developed many theories to understand the radicalization process. One key factor that may promote radicalization is social exclusion, the state of being kept apart from others. Indeed, experimental studies have provided initial evidence for a relation between exclusion and radicalism. The current review outlines and builds upon these research programs, arguing that social exclusion has been shown (a) to increase the willingness to fight‐and‐die, (b) to promote the approval for extreme, even violent, political parties and actions, and (c) to push the willingness to engage in illegal and violent action for a political cause. We close with an agenda for future research and critically discuss implications of this work for social policy.

Exploring social exclusion: Where we are and where We're going

“…As we have previously mentioned, discrimination both at the interpersonal and societal levels have been linked to the concept of social exclusion (Kurzban & Leary, 2001; Smart Richman & Leary, 2009). Other researchers have connected radicalization‐related beliefs and behavioral orientations to social exclusion directly, both theoretically (Hales et al., 2020; Knapton, 2014; Pfundmair, Wood, et al., 2022; Weight‐Neville & Halafoff, 2010) and empirically (Bäck et al., 2018; Gómez et al., 2011; Hales & Williams, 2018; Pfundmair, 2019; Pfundmair, Pachurka et al., 2022). Finally, case‐study data suggest that chronic exclusion is one ingredient (in addition to mental instability and ready access to weapons) in a lethal cocktail for mass shootings in schools (Kowalski et al., 2021; Leary et al., 2003).…”

“…The socio‐political factors that make extremist groups attractive are multi‐faceted but drawing on social exclusion research provides a starting point. Specifically, social efforts to reduce exclusion of minoritized groups, both at the interpersonal and systemic levels, is one avenue (Pfundmair, Wood, et al., 2022). Another is to facilitate the deradicalization process for individuals who have already started on that path.…”

Counter-narrative strategies in deradicalisation: A content analysis of Indonesia’s anti-terrorism laws

“…Radicalism is a radical political, social or religious view inconsistent with or contrary to usual political, social and religious views, resulting in social, political and interreligious conflicts or conflicts within the same religion (Gøtzsche-Astrup 2018; Veldhuis & Staun 2009). The root of radicalism is fundamentalism, namely the radicalisation of a community's religious understanding, which constructs exclusivity (Pfundmair et al 2022;Suyanto, Sirry & Sugihartati 2022). In addition, radicalism tends to promote terrorism and other acts of violence that are often committed in the name of religion.…”

The Rage of Lonely Men: Loneliness and Misogyny in the Online Movement of “Involuntary Celibates” (Incels)

“…A more comprehensive analysis of the incel movement would need to take into account all these factors as well as their interrelation. Although our focus is on the digital incel movement, we believe that our analysis is also relevant for understanding other forms of online and offline radicalization (see, e.g., Pfundmair et al 2022;Vukčević Marković et al 2021). However, exploring this hypothesis is beyond the scope of our article.…”