How is depth of anaesthesia assessed in experimental pigs? A scoping review

Mirra, Alessandro; Maidanskaia, Ekaterina Gámez; Carmo, Luís Pedro; Levionnois, Olivier; Spadavecchia, Claudia

doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0283511

Cited by 6 publications

(5 citation statements)

References 126 publications

(82 reference statements)

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“…Mechanomyography and acceleromyography techniques are the most used methods for neuromuscular blockade monitoring. Acceleromyography, due to its ease of use for research purposes, was presented in several studies involving pigs [86,87].…”

Section: Perianesthetic Monitoring and Complicationsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Pig Sedation and Anesthesia for Medical Research

Costea,

Ene,

Pavel

2023

Animals

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In clinical veterinary practice, proper training and expertise in anesthesia administration and monitoring are essential. Pigs are suitable experimental animals for many surgical techniques because they are similar in size to humans and have a short reproductive cycle. This makes them ideal for research concerning organ transplantation, cardiovascular surgery, and other procedures that require a large animal model. Sedation and premedication should be administered at the lowest dose to be effective with predictable results and reduced adverse effects, to ensure the safety of both the animal and the team involved in the procedure, with a fast onset and optimizing the induction and maintenance of anesthesia. The goal of induction is to achieve a safe and effective level of anesthesia that ensures patient safety and facilitates research. Most of the time, inhalation anesthesia with endotracheal intubation is the ideal choice for maintenance of anesthesia. The difficulties related to endotracheal intubation of pigs can be overcome by knowing the anatomical peculiarities. Effective analgesia tailored to the specific procedure, the pig’s condition, and individual responses to medications should complete the maintenance and recovery protocols, reducing perioperative complications.

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Section: Perianesthetic Monitoring and Complicationsmentioning

confidence: 99%

Pig Sedation and Anesthesia for Medical Research

Costea,

Ene,

Pavel

2023

Animals

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“…If the EEG power spatio-temporal distribution following the administration of various anesthetics has been reported in humans, almost no information is available in veterinary medicine, particularly in pigs [ 9 – 11 ]. Similar EEG monitoring approaches to those used in humans have been applied in pigs undergoing experimental procedures [ 12 ], including EEG-based DoA monitors developed for and based on human data. However, many studies have demonstrated their inaccuracy in correctly assessing unconsciousness in these animals, probably due to the underlying anatomical and neurophysiological differences [ 13 , 14 ].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

Spatio-temporal electroencephalographic power distribution in experimental pigs receiving propofol

Mirra,

Hight,

Spadavecchia

et al. 2024

PLoS ONE

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Introduction When assessing the spatio-temporal distribution of electroencephalographic (EEG) activity, characteristic patterns have been identified for several anesthetic drugs in humans. A shift in EEG power from the occipital to the prefrontal regions has been widely observed during anesthesia induction. This has been called “anteriorization” and has been correlated with loss of consciousness in humans. The spatio-temporal distribution of EEG spectral power in pigs and its modulation by anesthetics have not been described previously. The aim of the present study was to analyze EEG power across an anterior-posterior axis in pigs receiving increasing doses of propofol to 1) characterize the region of highest EEG power during wakefulness, 2) depict its spatio-temporal modification during propofol infusion, and 3) determine the region demonstrating the most significant modulations across different doses administered. Materials and methods Six pigs with a body weight of 33.3 ± 3.6 kg and aged 11.3 ± 0.5 weeks were included in a prospective experimental study. Electroencephalographic activity was collected at the occipital, parietal and prefrontal regions at increasing doses of propofol (starting at 10 mg kg-1 h-1 and increasing it by 10 mg kg-1 h-1 every 15 minutes). The EEG power was assessed using a generalized linear mixed model in which propofol doses and regions were treated as fixed effects, whereas pig was used as a random effect. Pairwise comparisons of marginal linear predictions were used to assess the change in power when the specific propofol dose (or region) was considered. Results During both wakefulness and propofol infusion, the highest EEG power was located in the prefrontal region (p<0.001). The EEG power, both total and for each frequency band, mostly followed the same pattern, increasing from awake until propofol 20 mg kg-1 h-1 and then decreasing at propofol 30 mg kg-1 h-1. The region showing the strongest differences in EEG power across propofol doses was the prefrontal. Conclusion In juvenile pigs receiving increasing doses of propofol, the prefrontal region showed the highest EEG power both during wakefulness and propofol administration and was the area in which the largest frequency-band specific variations were observed across different anesthetic doses. The assessment of the spectral EEG activity at this region could be favorable to distinguish DoA levels in pigs.

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“…General anesthesia is a complex combination of (at least) three outcomes, constituting what is generally defined as the "anesthesia triad" (unconsciousness, immobility, autonomic nervous system control) [1]. Despite the large use of the porcine model in translational medicine, appropriate objective methods to correctly evaluate the anesthetic level in pigs are still missing [2]. Quantitative methods, such as numerical variables derived from an electroencephalogram (e.g., bispectral index), have been investigated, but controversial results have been obtained [2].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Despite the large use of the porcine model in translational medicine, appropriate objective methods to correctly evaluate the anesthetic level in pigs are still missing [2]. Quantitative methods, such as numerical variables derived from an electroencephalogram (e.g., bispectral index), have been investigated, but controversial results have been obtained [2]. Moreover, the specific monitoring of the brain function may not provide a complete assessment of the anesthetic triad.…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…One of the most commonly reported methods to guide anesthetic administration in experimental pigs is the evaluation of purposeful movements following noxious stimulations (e.g., claw clamp) [2][3][4]. Based on this reaction, the minimal alveolar concentration (MAC; for inhalant anesthetics) and the minimal infusion rate (MIR; for injectable anesthetics) have been commonly defined [5,6].…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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How Is the Nociceptive Withdrawal Reflex Influenced by Increasing Doses of Propofol in Pigs?

Mirra,

Gamez Maidanskaia,

Levionnois

et al. 2024

Animals

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The nociceptive withdrawal reflex (NWR) is a physiological, polysynaptic spinal reflex occurring in response to noxious stimulations. Continuous NWR threshold (NWRt) tracking has been shown to be possibly useful in the depth of anesthesia assessment. The primary aim of this study was to describe how propofol modulates the NWRt over time in pigs. Five juvenile pigs (anesthetized three times) were included. An intravenous (IV) infusion of propofol (20 mg/kg/h) was started, and boli were administered to effect until intubation. Afterwards, the infusion was increased every ten minutes by 6 mg/kg/h, together with an IV bolus of 0.5 mg/kg, until reaching an electroencephalographic suppression ratio (SR) of between 10% and 30%. The NWRt was continuously monitored. For data analysis, the time span between 15 min following intubation and the end of propofol infusion was considered. Individual durations of propofol administration were divided into five equal time intervals for each pig (TI1–TI5). A linear regression between NWRt and TI was performed for each pig. Moreover, the baseline NWRt and slopes of the linear regression (b1) were compared among days using a Friedman Repeated Measures Analysis of Variance on Ranks. The NWRt always increased with the propofol dose (b1 = 4.71 ± 3.23; mean ± standard deviation). No significant differences were found between the baseline NWRt and the b1 values. Our results suggest that the NWRt may complement the depth of anesthesia assessment in pigs receiving propofol.

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How is depth of anaesthesia assessed in experimental pigs? A scoping review

Cited by 6 publications

References 126 publications

Pig Sedation and Anesthesia for Medical Research

Pig Sedation and Anesthesia for Medical Research

Spatio-temporal electroencephalographic power distribution in experimental pigs receiving propofol

How Is the Nociceptive Withdrawal Reflex Influenced by Increasing Doses of Propofol in Pigs?

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