How Income Inequality and Race Concentrate Depression in Low-Income Women in the US; 2005–2016

Abstract

Aim: To estimate the association between income and depressive symptoms in adult women, ages 20 years and older. Methods: Data for this study came from the 2005–2016 National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES). We measured the presence of depressive symptoms by using a 9-item PHQ (Public Health Questionnaire, PHQ-9) and the Poverty to Income Ratio (PIR) as a proxy for income. We employed Negative Binomial Regression (NBRG) and logistic regression models in a sample of 11,420 women. We adjusted models by age, racial/ethnic groups, marital status, education, health insurance, comorbidity, and utilization of mental health professionals. We calculated the Gini Coefficient (GC) as a measure of income inequality, using PIR. Results: Between 2005 and 2016, 20.1% of low-PIR women suffered from depression (PHQ ≥10) compared with 12.0% of women in medium-PIR and 5.0% in high-PIR. The highest probabilities of being depressed were in Black Non-Hispanics (BNH) and Hispanics (12.0%), and then in White NH (WNH; 9.1%). The results of NBRG have shown that women in medium-PIR (0.90 [CI: 0.84–0.97]) and high-PIR 0.76 (CI: 0.70–0.82) had a lower incidence-rate ratio than women in low-PIR. The logistic regression results showed that income is protective in High-PIR groups (OR = 0.56, CI [0.43–0.73]). Conclusion: Policies to treat depression should prioritize the needs of low-income women of all racial groups and women.

Development and validation of a depression risk prediction nomogram for US Adults with hypertension, based on NHANES 2007–2018

“…The effect of higher or lower income levels on depression has been demonstrated in many studies, with low-income groups tending to be more likely to suffer from depression [ 22 , 23 ]. The possible reason is that lower income affects psychosocial factors in low-income people, which increases the risk of depressive symptoms in low-income people [ 24 ]. Consequently, policy makers should give more consideration to mental health screening of low-income populations.…”

Link between Secondhand Smoke Exposure and Obstructive Sleep Apnea among Nonsmoking U.S General Adults: Finding from the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey 2015-2020

“…The family income was classified according to the federal poverty threshold and the poverty-to-income ratio (PIR). To calculate PIR, the income of a family or individual is divided by the income set in the poverty guidelines that are specific to each survey year [22]. A PIR value of less than 1.0 indicates that a family lives below the poverty threshold [23].…”