“…These languages were selected to vary widely in their orthographic consistency, namely, English being the most inconsistent, Greek being the most consistent, and Dutch, and German lying in between English and Greek in the orthographic consistency continuum ( Seymour et al, 2003 ; Borgwaldt et al, 2004 ). Guided by the Home Literacy Model and the previous findings from within- and cross-language studies reviewed above, we expected that (a) parents’ teaching of reading and spelling (the code-related activities) would predict letter knowledge and phonological awareness in all languages ( Lehrl et al, 2013 ; Manolitsis et al, 2013 ; Hamilton et al, 2016 ; Silinskas et al, 2020 ), and their association would be stronger in English than in the other languages because children learning to read in English might need more elaborate teaching as its inconsistent grapheme-phoneme associations cannot be acquired through simple paired associate learning as in consistent orthographies ( Manolitsis et al, 2009 ); (b) shared book reading (the meaning-related activities) would predict vocabulary in all languages ( Manolitsis et al, 2013 ; Sénéchal and LeFevre, 2014 ; Inoue et al, 2018 ; Krijnen et al, 2020 ; Lehrl et al, 2020 ), but their association would be limited when access to literacy resources is taken into account separately ( van Bergen et al, 2017 ; Zhang et al, 2019 ); (c) access to literacy resources would be uniquely associated with literacy skills over and above the effects of parent teaching and shared book reading and its effect would be similar across languages ( Chiu and McBride-Chang, 2006 ; Araújo and Costa, 2015 ), and (d) all of the HLE aspects would have mediated effects on later reading and spelling via emergent literacy skills in all languages ( Hamilton et al, 2016 ; Inoue et al, 2018 ; Lehrl et al, 2020 ).…”