How commuting affects subjective wellbeing

Abstract

Commuting between home and work is routinely performed by workers and any wellbeing impacts of commuting will consequently affect a large proportion of the population. This paper presents findings from analyses of the impact of commuting (time and mode) on multiple aspects of Subjective Well-Being (SWB), including: satisfaction with life overall and the SWB sub-domains of job satisfaction, satisfaction with leisure time availability and self-reported health. Measures of strain and mental health (GHQ-12) are also examined. Six waves of individual-level panel data from Understanding Society (2009/10 to 2014/15) are analysed, providing a sample of over 26,000 workers living in England. Associations between commuting and SWB are identified, paying particular attention to those arising from individual changes in commuting circumstances over the six waves. It is found that longer commute times are associated with lower job and leisure time satisfaction, increased strain and poorer mental health. The strongest association is found for leisure time satisfaction. Despite these negative associations with the SWB sub-domains, longer commute times were not associated with lower overall life satisfaction (except where individuals persisted with them over all six waves). Workers in England appear to be successful in balancing the negative aspects of commuting against the wider benefits, e.g. access to employment, earnings and housing. Differences amongst selected population sub-groups are also examined. The job satisfaction of younger adults and lower income groups are not found to be negatively associated with longer commute times; longer commute times are more strongly negatively associated with the job satisfaction of women compared to men. With respect to mode of transport, walking to work is associated with increased leisure time satisfaction and reduced strain. The absence of the commute, via working from home, is associated with increased job satisfaction and leisure time satisfaction. Overall, the study indicates that shorter commute times and walkable commutes can contribute to improved SWB-particularly through the release of leisure time. But life satisfaction overall will only be maintained if the benefits of undertaking the commute (earnings and satisfactory housing/employment) are not compromised.

Gender gaps and the structure of local labor markets

“…Another potential but under-explored channel of impact is women's stronger preference for shorter work commutes. Commute is an important job attribute, which matters significantly for job satisfaction and subjective well-being in general (Clark et al, 2019), and a few studies have detected a positive and robust relationship between commuting and wages (Manning, 2003a, and references therein). If women take a larger share of caring responsibilities in the home, they are restricted in the distance they can travel to work, with potential consequences on their job search targets and earnings.…”

A socioeconomic analysis of commuting professionals

“…These analyses on physiological and psychological well-being investigate the effects of occupational mobility on the health of employees. Dissatisfaction, psychological pressure and other stresses were identified as the common proxies by which mobility harms health and thus decreases a persons life satisfaction (Rüger and Schulze 2016;Clark et al 2019;Stutzer and Frey 2008;Chatman et al 2019). Moreover, occupational mobility causes temporal and monetary costs.…”

“…income-related effects. This economic mismatch, or rather commuting paradox (Stutzer and Frey 2008) arises from several individual restrictions, such as family ties or the high costs for relocating a workplace or residence (Ye et al 2020;Frey 2007, 2008;Pfaff 2012;Chatman et al 2019;Clark et al 2019;Morris and Zhou 2018).…”

“…Nevertheless, especially professionals appear to benefit from the rise of information and communication technologies as knowledge-intensive work becomes more flexible in spatial, temporal or interaction patterns and can be adapted to household restrictions more easily, by means such as home office or working while commuting (Alexander and Dijst 2012;Ettema et al 2012;Kakihara and Sørensen 2004;He and Hu 2015;Clark et al 2019).…”

“…The results of e.g. Roberts et al (2011), Clark et al (2019) and Rüger and Schulze (2016) indicate that the health of women, in particular, is negatively affected by commuting. As the presence of children in the household reinforces the effect, the difference is explained by the often more complex everyday life of women, which tends to involve longer trip chains, e.g.…”