How Antimicrobial Resistance Is Linked to Climate Change: An Overview of Two Intertwined Global Challenges

Abstract

Globally, antimicrobial resistance (AMR) and climate change (CC) are two of the top health emergencies, and can be considered as two interlinked public health priorities. The complex commonalities between AMR and CC should be deeply investigated in a One Health perspective. Here, we provided an overview of the current knowledge about the relationship between AMR and CC. Overall, the studies included pointed out the need for applying a systemic approach to planetary health. Firstly, CC increasingly brings humans and animals into contact, leading to outbreaks of zoonotic and vector-borne diseases with pandemic potential. Although it is well-established that antimicrobial use in human, animal and environmental sectors is one of the main drivers of AMR, the COVID-19 pandemic is exacerbating the current scenario, by influencing the use of antibiotics, personal protective equipment, and biocides. This also results in higher concentrations of contaminants (e.g., microplastics) in natural water bodies, which cannot be completely removed from wastewater treatment plants, and which could sustain the AMR spread. Our overview underlined the lack of studies on the direct relationship between AMR and CC, and encouraged further research to investigate the multiple aspects involved, and its effect on human health.

Antimicrobial resistance, society and environment: A glocal syndemic

“…The human health effects are reflected through food insecurity and malnutrition (undernutrition and obesity), adverse health effects associated with extreme weather events, poor mental health, increase in cancer, cardiovascular and respiratory diseases as well as diseases transmitted by food and vectors, other infectious diseases and several other conditions related to water, pollution and global warming, including antimicrobial resistance ( Fig. 1 ) [ 6 , 7 ].…”

Socioeconomic and Governance Factors Disentangle the Relationship between Temperature and Antimicrobial Resistance: A 10-Year Ecological Analysis of European Countries

“…For this reason, there has been growing interest in recent years in evaluating other factors that may contribute to the spread of AMR. Some of these factors include changes in the environment, such as temperature [ 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 ], as well as the exchange of genetic material between bacteria, which can lead to the spread of AMR genes [ 26 , 27 , 28 ]. Additionally, studies have also shown that population density, poor governance, reduced public health-care expenditure, abuse of disinfectants and biocides, and the presence of other stressors in the environment can also play a role in the development and spread of AMR [ 14 , 18 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 ].…”

“…Some of these factors include changes in the environment, such as temperature [ 21 , 22 , 23 , 24 , 25 ], as well as the exchange of genetic material between bacteria, which can lead to the spread of AMR genes [ 26 , 27 , 28 ]. Additionally, studies have also shown that population density, poor governance, reduced public health-care expenditure, abuse of disinfectants and biocides, and the presence of other stressors in the environment can also play a role in the development and spread of AMR [ 14 , 18 , 26 , 27 , 28 , 29 , 30 , 31 ]. Understanding the interplay between these factors is crucial for developing effective strategies to prevent and control the spread of antibiotic-resistant bacteria [ 29 , 32 ].…”

Time to Treat the Climate and Nature Crisis as One Indivisible Global Health Emergency

“…6 But actions that may benefit one subsystem can harm another-for example, planting forests with one type of tree can remove carbon dioxide from the air but can damage the biodiversity that is fundamental to healthy ecosystems. 7 The Impacts on Health Human health is damaged directly by both the climate crisis, as the journals have described in previous editorials, 8,9 and by the nature crisis. 10 This indivisible planetary crisis will have major effects on health as a result of the disruption of social and economic systems-shortages of land, shelter, food, and water, exacerbating poverty, which in turn will lead to mass migration and conflict.…”