Hot and cold executive functions in the brain: A prefrontal-cingular network

Abstract

Executive functions, or cognitive control, are higher-order cognitive functions needed for adaptive goal-directed behaviours and are significantly impaired in majority of neuropsychiatric disorders. Different models and approaches are proposed for describing how executive functions are functionally organised in the brain. One popular and recently proposed organising principle of executive functions is the distinction between hot (i.e. reward or affective-related) versus cold (i.e. purely cognitive) domains of executive functions. The prefrontal cortex is traditionally linked to executive functions, but on the other hand, anterior and posterior cingulate cortices are hugely involved in executive functions as well. In this review, we first define executive functions, their domains, and the appropriate methods for studying them. Second, we discuss how hot and cold executive functions are linked to different areas of the prefrontal cortex. Next, we discuss the association of hot versus cold executive functions with the cingulate cortex, focusing on the anterior and posterior compartments. Finally, we propose a functional model for hot and cold executive function organisation in the brain with a specific focus on the fronto-cingular network. We also discuss clinical implications of hot versus cold cognition in major neuropsychiatric disorders (depression, schizophrenia, anxiety disorders, substance use disorder, attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder, and autism) and attempt to characterise their profile according to the functional dominance or manifest of hot–cold cognition. Our model proposes that the lateral prefrontal cortex along with the dorsal anterior cingulate cortex are more relevant for cold executive functions, while the medial–orbital prefrontal cortex along with the ventral anterior cingulate cortex, and the posterior cingulate cortex are more closely involved in hot executive functions. This functional distinction, however, is not absolute and depends on several factors including task features, context, and the extent to which the measured function relies on cognition and emotion or both.

Acute effects of a single dose of 2 mA of anodal transcranial direct current stimulation over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex on executive functions in patients with schizophrenia—A randomized controlled trial

“…However, neither their nor our finding suggest an acute enhancing effect of anodal tDCS over F3 on problem solving. However, the previous and our finding might need to be interpreted within a recent theoretical framework that divides executive functions into "hot" executive functions related to reward, emotion and motivation such as emotion regulation, delay discounting and risky and affective decision making and purely, cognitive "cold" executive functions such as working memory, response inhibition, cognitive flexibility and planning ability [43]. As problem solving and planning ability have in healthy participants recently been shown to not be a purely "cold" but also to a certain extent a "hot" executive functions, it is possible that our stimulation parameters were not optimal for the Tower of London task [44].…”

Contribution of the right temporoparietal junction and ventromedial prefrontal cortex to theory of mind in autism: A randomized, sham-controlled tDCS study

“…These findings primarily suggest that vmPFC activation, compared to r-TPJ activation, seems to be more involved in reading mental states and social cognition in autism. Previous neuroimaging studies have repeatedly shown that a frontal-posterior network is activated during ToM and social cognition, including the medial PFC, posterior cingulate cortex and TPJ (Barch et al, 2013;Boccadoro et al, 2019;Gallagher et al, 2000;Salehinejad et al, 2021;Van Overwalle, 2009). In ASD, these regions are usually underactive compared to healthy controls (Kana et al, 2015) implicating that increasing their activity could enhance ToM ability.…”

“…In ASD, which is marked by poor ToM ability, neuroimaging studies have shown altered activation and connectivity of this frontal-posterior network, and specifically the vmPFC and TPJ (Kana et al, 2015;Nijhof, Bardi, Brass, & Wiersema, 2018;Yuk, Anagnostou, & Taylor, 2020). These regions, which are part of a prefrontal-cingular network, are highly engaged in ASD reciprocity abilities (Salehinejad et al, 2021). Such alternation of activity is in general accordance with the broader pathophysiology of ASD that results from early altered brain development and neural reorganization (Lord et al, 2018).…”

“…ToM deficits in ASD are indeed related to a predominately executive dysfunction system and related brain regions (Salehinejad, Ghanavati, Rashid, & Nitsche, 2021). Neuroimaging studies have identified a frontal-posterior network activated during ToM tasks, including the medial prefrontal cortex (e.g.…”

A Short Version of the EFECO Online Questionnaire for the Assessment of Executive Functions in School-Age Children

“…Moreover, the neural network structure that serves as a substrate for executive functioning suggests that both cold and warm EF operate simultaneously in everyday life, except for dysfunctions [ 14 ]. The neural substrate for EF lies through multiple frontal-subcortical pathways among which a predominantly dorsolateral pathway is identified for cold EF processes and an orbitofrontal/ventromedial pathway for warm EF [ 15 , 16 ].…”