Hosts and Sources of Endemic Human Coronaviruses

Abstract

The four endemic human coronaviruses HCoV-229E, -NL63, -OC43, and -HKU1 contribute a considerable share of upper and lower respiratory tract infections in adults and children. While their clinical representation resembles that of many other agents of the common cold, their evolutionary histories, and host associations could provide important insights into the natural history of past human pandemics. For two of these viruses, we have strong evidence suggesting an origin in major livestock species while primordial associations for all four viruses may have existed with bats and rodents. HCoV-NL63 and -229E may originate from bat reservoirs as assumed for many other coronaviruses, but HCoV-OC43 and -HKU1 seem more likely to have speciated from rodent-associated viruses. HCoV-OC43 is thought to have emerged from ancestors in domestic animals such as cattle or swine. The bovine coronavirus has been suggested to be a possible ancestor, from which HCoV-OC43 may have emerged in the context of a pandemic recorded historically at the end of the 19th century. New data suggest that HCoV-229E may actually be transferred from dromedary camels similar to Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS) coronavirus. This scenario provides important ecological parallels to the present prepandemic pattern of host associations of the MERS coronavirus.

The species Severe acute respiratory syndrome-related coronavirus: classifying 2019-nCoV and naming it SARS-CoV-2

“…If (within this framework) a virus crosses a host barrier and acquires novel properties, its classification will not change (that is, it remains part of the original species) even if the virus establishes a permanent circulation in the new host, which likely happened with coronaviruses of the four species that circulate in humans and display seasonal peaks (reviewed in ref. 50 ). Importantly, the criteria used to define a viral species in one virus family such as Coronaviridae may not be applicable to another family such as Retroviridae, and vice versa, since Study Groups are independent in their approach to virus classification.…”

Identification of Coronavirus Isolated from a Patient in Korea with COVID-19

“…There are 6 known coronaviruses that typically cause infection in humans. Among these, coronavirus 229E, OC43, NL63, and HKU1 generally cause mild cold-like symptoms, whereas severe acute respiratory syndrome-coronavirus (SARS-CoV) in 2003, and Middle East respiratory syndrome-coronavirus (MERS-CoV) in 2012, caused severe respiratory diseases such as pneumonia and death [5,6].…”

Influences of cyclosporin A and non-immunosuppressive derivatives on cellular cyclophilins and viral nucleocapsid protein during human coronavirus 229E replication

“…Coronaviruses (CoVs) infect a number of mammalian species mostly causing respiratory and gastrointestinal tract pathologies (Perlman and Netland, 2009). The six human CoVs, namely HCoV-229E, -OC43, -NL63, -HKU1, SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome)-CoV, MERS (Middle East respiratory syndrome)-CoV are of zoonotic origin (Corman et al, 2018). The first four viruses mainly target the respiratory tract and are associated with common colds, whereas SARS-and MERS-CoV are highly pathogenic with high mortality rates (Cui et al, 2019).…”