Honey Bee Alarm Pheromone Mediates Communication in Plant–Pollinator–Predator Interactions

Abstract

Honey bees play a crucial role in pollination, and in performing this critical function, face numerous threats from predators and parasites during foraging and homing trips. Back in the nest, their defensive behavior drives some individuals to sacrifice themselves while fighting intruders with their stingers or mandibles. During these intense conflicts, bees release alarm pheromone to rapidly communicate with other nest mates about the present danger. However, we still know little about why and how alarm pheromone is used in plant–pollinator–predator interactions. Here, we review the history of previously detected bee alarm pheromones and the current state of the chemical analyses. More new components and functions have been confirmed in honey bee alarm pheromone. Then, we ask how important the alarm pheromones are in intra- and/or inter-species communication. Some plants even adopt mimicry systems to attract either the pollinators themselves or their predators for pollination via alarm pheromone. Pheromones are honest signals that evolved in one species and can be one of the main driving factors affecting co-evolution in plant–pollinator–predator interactions. Our review intends to stimulate new studies on the neuronal, molecular, behavioral, and evolutionary levels in order to understand how alarm pheromone mediates communication in plant–pollinator–predator interactions.

Increased alarm pheromone component is associated withNosema ceranaeinfected honeybee colonies

“…However, no differences were found in regard to ( Z )-11-eicosen-1-ol production like in our study [ 30 , 31 ]. Higher amounts of this alarm pheromone component produced at the colony level could have far-ranging effects, as it even mediates communication in plant–pollinator–predator interactions (see [ 7 ]). More broadly, other alarm pheromone components have been shown to decrease foraging and waggle dancing in honeybees [ 32 ].…”

“…Open Sci. 8: 210194 level could have far-ranging effects, as it even mediates communication in plant-pollinator-predator interactions (see [7]). More broadly, other alarm pheromone components have been shown to decrease foraging and waggle dancing in honeybees [32].…”

“…Honeybee alarm pheromones are released after a bee is crushed or stings an intruder and triggers other bees to engage the trespasser to protect the hive [ 7 ]. Guard and forager bees are known to be particularly sensitive to alarm pheromone components, such as 2-heptanone and ( Z )-11-eicosen-1-ol [ 8 , 9 ].…”

Policy, toxicology and physicochemical considerations on the inhalation of high concentrations of food flavour

“…Naturally, the compound is found in bananas, but can also be found as a fermentation by-product. Isoamyl acetate is also released by honey bee's stingers, which helps to attract and provoke other bees to attack 36 . Generally, fruity esters are considered to have low toxicity; however, according to the Center for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC), they can irritate the mucosal surfaces if inhaled, and were shown to cause skin damage at concentrations above 50-400 ppm, and fatigue, respiratory irritation and dyspnoea at concentrations over 1000 ppm 37 .…”

Biosynthesis of 2-Heptanone, a Volatile Organic Compound with a Protective Role against Honey Bee Pathogens, by Hive Associated Bacteria

“…Hundreds of signaling chemicals used by plants, insects and microorganisms for transmitting information between individuals of the same species or of different species (semiochemicals) have been discovered, but their use in pest management is still largely unexploited, despite the high potential interest [5,6]. In the hive environment, chemical signals from multiple biological interactions are countless [6][7][8]. Hundreds of VOCs have been identified in hive products, but studies have focused mainly on their involvement in the aroma of honey and on their use to obtain information on the botanical and geographical origins of honey [9].…”