History of Determinations of the Heights of Mountains

Cajori, Florian

doi:10.1086/346425

Cited by 16 publications

(8 citation statements)

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“…The historical methods used to measure the altitude of mountains can be divided into three groups: geodetic methods, barometric methods and the boiling point method [70]. Geodetically, the altitude was determined by measuring triangles, levelling and measuring the distance from which the mountain was visible at sea.…”

Section: Historical Methods For Altitude Determinationmentioning

confidence: 99%

Determining Peak Altitude on Maps, Books and Cartographic Materials: Multidisciplinary Implications

et al. 2021

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Mountain peaks and their altitude have been of interest to researchers across disciplines. Measurement methods and techniques have changed and developed over the years, leading to more accurate measurements and, consequently, more accurate determination of peak altitudes. This research transpired due to the frequency of misstatements found in existing sources including books, maps, guidebooks and the Internet. Such inaccuracies have the potential to create controversy, especially among peak-baggers in pursuit of climbing the highest summits. The Polish Sudetes Mountains were selected for this study; 24 summits in the 14 mesoregions were measured. Measurements were obtained employing the global navigation satellite system (GNSS) and light detection and ranging (LiDAR), both modern and highly precise techniques. Moreover, to determine the accuracy of measurements, several of the summits were measured using a mobile phone as an additional method. We compare GNSS vs. LiDAR and verify the level of confidence of peak heights obtained by automatic methods from LiDAR data alone. The GNSS receiver results showed a discrepancy of approximately 10 m compared with other information sources examined. Findings indicate that the heights of peaks presented in cartographic materials are inaccurate, especially in lesser-known mountain ranges. Furthermore, among all the mountain ranges examined, the results demonstrated that five of the summits were no longer classed as the highest, potentially impacting tourist perceptions and subsequent visitation. Overall, due to the topographical relief characteristics and varying vegetation cover of mountains, we argue that the re-measuring procedure should comprise two steps: (1) develop high-resolution digital elevation models (DEMs) based on LiDAR; (2) assumed heights should be measured using precise GNSS receivers. Unfortunately, due to the time constraints and the prohibitive costs of GNSS, LiDAR continues to be the most common source of new altitude data.

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Section: Historical Methods For Altitude Determinationmentioning

confidence: 99%

Determining Peak Altitude on Maps, Books and Cartographic Materials: Multidisciplinary Implications

et al. 2021

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“…All three of these methods are still used nowadays. As described by Cajori [6], the ancient mountain summit method was based on the geodetic, Thales-based method, which measured similar right-angled triangles. Two triangulation methods are mentioned; however, there is a lack of detail for these methods.…”

Section: Historical Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Snell and Picard resented a more scientific approach to the issue and concluded that improved tools and the impact on the measurements should be used when calculating the altitudes of mountain peaks. In 1883, in California, levelling was used to determine the altitude of Mount Diablo [6]; however, most peaks were measured by the geodetic method or by setting up triangulation networks.…”

Section: Historical Methodsmentioning

confidence: 99%

“…Mountain peaks (and their altitudes) have always been of interest to researchers as the subject poses as a challenge for those who have attempted to measure and standardise them in the past [1][2][3][4]. Measurement methods and techniques have changed and developed over the years [5,6], leading to more accurate measurements [7] and, consequently, more accurate determination of peak altitudes. New data on the peak altitudes have emerged, primarily due to the development of several modern geodetic height determination methods, such as the global navigation satellite system (GNSS) and light detection and ranging (LiDAR).…”

Section: Introductionmentioning

confidence: 99%

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Altitude on Cartographic Materials and Its Correction According to New Measurement Techniques

et al. 2021

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Determining the correct height of mountain peaks is vital for tourism, but it is also important as a reference point for devices equipped with GPS (Global Positioning System), e.g., watches or car navigation systems. The peak altitude data are part of geographic and geodetic information. As more modern technologies and equipment become available, their precisions should increase. However, verification of peak heights is usually only conducted for the highest, well-known mountains—lower peaks or mountain passes are rarely verified. Therefore, this study focuses on an investigation of 12 altitude points on a section of the longest and most famous touristic trail in Poland (the Main Beskid Trail), located in the Orava–Żywiec Beskids Mts (Mountains). The aim of this research is to measure and verify the heights of the 12 selected mountain peaks, in addition to evaluating the chosen methods based on the quality of the obtained data and determining their suitability and opportunities for use in further research. Measurements were obtained at the most specific height points—on the 12 highest points of the summits. This study compares two modern measurement techniques: the global navigation satellite system (GNSS) and light detection and ranging (LiDAR). The obtained results were later compared with those widely used on the internet and in printed materials (period covered: 1884–2015). This analysis demonstrates that lesser-known objects are rarely the subject of remeasurement and significant altitude errors may occur, primarily because the heights originated from a source in the past when modern methods were not available. Our findings indicate that the heights of the peaks presented in cartographic materials are inaccurate. The assumed heights should be corrected by direct measurements using modern techniques.

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“…100 Besides being vital for calculations related to steam engines, Regnault's tables of the vapor pressure of steam led to two significant applications: the ability to determine accurately the upper fixed point of 100°C in thermometers, and the construction of a new apparatus, the hypsometer, for determining altitude based on the lowering of the boiling point of water with decreasing pressure or increasing altitude. Although the Swiss geologist and meteorologist Jean-André Deluc (1727-1817) was probably the first scientist to use this method, in 1762, 101 and although the English scientist Francis John Hyde Wollaston (1766-1828) built an improved design in 1817. 102 Regnault further improved its design in 1845 and promoted its use, making it more portable and easier to operate.…”

Section: Vapor Pressurementioning

confidence: 99%

Henri Victor Regnault: Experimentalist of the Science of Heat

Reif-Acherman

2010

Phys. Perspect.

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History of Determinations of the Heights of Mountains

Cited by 16 publications

References 0 publications

Determining Peak Altitude on Maps, Books and Cartographic Materials: Multidisciplinary Implications

Determining Peak Altitude on Maps, Books and Cartographic Materials: Multidisciplinary Implications

Altitude on Cartographic Materials and Its Correction According to New Measurement Techniques

Henri Victor Regnault: Experimentalist of the Science of Heat

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