Histopathological changes in Oreochromis mossambicus (Peters, 1852) ovaries after a chronic exposure to a mixture of the HIV drug nevirapine and the antibiotics sulfamethoxazole and trimethoprim

Abstract

The burden of the human immunodeficiency virus and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (HIV/AIDS) infection has transformed the African continent into a major consumer of antiretrovirals (ARVs) drugs. In addition to HIV burden, the African continent has also a high incidence of tuberculosis (TB) and has been experiencing recurring outbreaks of several other viral, bacterial, and parasitic epidemic diseases. The novel severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-COV-2 or Covid-19) pandemic outbreak is adding to the continent’s infectious diseases burden as experts are predicting that it will be here for a long time. One of the consequences of these infectious diseases is that antiviral and antibiotic compounds have become some of the most consumed pharmaceuticals on the continent. Many of these drugs have been frequently detected in surface waters across Africa. There is limited information available on the adverse effects of the mixtures of different types of pharmaceuticals in African aquatic environments on fish reproduction. The present study investigated the effects of the ARV drug nevirapine (NVP - 1.48 and 3.74 μg/L) and its mixture with the antibiotic sulfamethoxazole (3.68 μg/L) and trimethoprim (0.87 μg/L) on O. mossambicus gonads using histopathological endpoints as biomarkers. The fish (n = 52) were exposed for 30 days in a static renewal system. Female O. mossambicus exposed to nevirapine (3.74 μg/L) and to NVP – antibiotic mixture recorded higher ovary indices. Statistically significant differences were found in female ovary indices between the fish exposed to NVP (3.74 μg/L) and the control fish ( p = 0.002) as well as between the fish exposed to the NVP - antibiotic mixture and the control fish ( p = 0.009). The main observed histopathological changes in the ovaries were increased vitellogenic oocyte atresia and vacuolation of the interstitial tissue in the fish exposed to NVP - antibiotic mixture. It is evident that the presence of NVP - antibiotics mixture in water triggered the observed histopathology in female fish ovaries. The detected abnormal high rate of atretic oocytes could result in impaired fish reproduction.

Impacts of COVID-19 on the Aquatic Environment and Implications on Aquatic Food Production

“…Environmental concerns on antibiotics and antivirals; ivermectin and azithromycin had high effects in aquatic organisms. [8,16] Impairment of reproductive system in fish Abnormalities in fish ovaries [17] Disinfectants Strong biocidal properties against bacteria and viruses Formation of dioxin and other carcinogen in surface waters. High ecological risks [18,19] Water as a medium to spread viruses SARS-CoV-2 detected in feces Increase of COVID-19 cases and evidence its presence in waste waters [20][21][22][23] Transmission of virus from wastewater to surface water…”

“…The increased use of antiviral and antibiotics also results in increased waste of these medicines in water bodies. Nibamureke and Wagenaar [17] reported that medicinal waste could result in impaired fish reproduction. Tarazona et al [16] developed models to predict the impacts of antibiotics and antiviral drugs on the ecology of aquatic ecosystems and showed sub-lethal effects on fish.…”

Contaminants of Emerging Concern (CECs) and Male Reproductive Health: Challenging the Future with a Double-Edged Sword

“…Pharmaceuticals of emerging concern in African surface waters include antiretrovirals and antibiotics [108]. Antibiotics rank as one of the most commonly used and consumed pharmaceutical classes, with low levels widely detected in sewage treatment plants effluent, surface water, groundwater, and drinking water [69].…”

Toxicity Evaluation and Effect-Based Identification of Chlorine Disinfection Products of the Anti-COVID-19 Drug Chloroquine Phosphate

“…After use, the drugs and their incompletely metabolized parts are excreted via the urine or feces of patients . Due to the low removal of these chemicals by wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs), they are eventually released into aquatic environments via effluent discharge. − Consequently, WWTPs are a primary source of antiviral drug discharge, and antiviral drugs have been widely detected in natural water bodies. ,− In particular, the response to the coronavirus disease-2019 (COVID-19) pandemic has resulted in the considerable release of antiviral drugs into aquatic environments, which is likely to pose a high risk to the aquatic ecological environment. − Moreover, chlorine disinfection has been ubiquitously applied as a post-treatment in WWTPs to control microbial pathogens, especially during the pandemic. − The presence of active chlorine can react with pharmaceuticals during water chlorination and lead to the formation of transformation products (TPs), which may have hazardous effects on the environment and humans. − However, numerous TPs generated from antivirals during water chlorination and their potential environmental risks in aquatic environments are unknown.…”